E178 



.P92 

























L 0> "y. l» 



'- .^^ 







^''^*'V ./y:<i>'.':^^. Jy^&:'.% A 



^" -^"^ % 



; .^^' ^^. 






' ^^'% '•. 






%.*" ''^'- %/ .'^'°. %.^^ 








4 P^ 



^ » s • • » 



.^^r 



^^ > 






















*^o^ 






'^o' 

^<^°^ 



\^^'/ v^-/ \*^\/ ' 



'A*^ ^^. .1^ 



^. .'^'^ /^^^A*- ^^. ..^ **- 



ill 



THE 



Progressive 
Series 



REGENTS 
Question and Answer Books 



History 

QUESTIONS 

AND 

ANSWERS 



Hinds, Hayden & Eldredge, Inc. 

Now Tork Philadelphia 



Is 



The 

Progressive Series 

Questions in History 



for 
DRILL, TEST AND REVIEW 



By 

ISAAC PRICE, A.M. 

Washington Irving High School. 
New York Evening High School for Men. 

Author : 

'Direct Method of Teaching English to Foreigners," "Compre- 
hensive Question and Answer Book," "OutHnes 
in American History." 



HINDS, HAYDEN & ELDREDGE, Iru:. 
NEW YORK PHILADELPHIA 






Copyright, 1916, by 
HINDS, HAYDEN & ELDREDGE, INC. 



Entered at Stationers' Hall, London. 



All rights reserved. 



©CI,A453852 

JAN 31 1917 



PREFACE. 



A practical Question and Answer Book should be com- 
prehensive in scope without having too many and too de- 
tailed questions. It should furnish abundant material for 
drill, test, and review of the subject by means of well 
arranged and well graded questions, and should aim to 
cultivate in the student those qualities brought out in a 
good recitation by a skilled teacher. 

With these objects in mind this series of books has been 
written. The separate books are intended, not only 
for beginners, but also for students pursuing advanced 
and review work. Care has been taken to make each book 
complete. The papers given at civil service, college en- 
trance, and Regents examinations have been carefully 
culled for suitable questions, and the material arranged 
topically and logically to emphasize principles as well as 
essential facts. The answers are supported by the latest 
authorities and in consonance with the accepted texts for 
the best elementary and secondary schools. To make the 
work more helpful, diagrams, illustrations, maps, topical 
outlines, and glossaries have been included. 

Acknowledgment is due to the many experienced teach- 
ers who have freely offered suggestions and criticisms de- 
signed to make this a most helpful "text-book." 



The aim of this book is to give the leading facts and features 
in the development of the United States, not through miHtary 
achievements, but through the amalgamation of the various na- 
tionalities contributing to the "melting pot", through the leveling 
influences of democratic tendencies, and through the economic 
expansion, made possible by a wealth of natural resources. Geo- 
graphic conditions as influencing our growth and development 
have been emphasized in common with the ideals that have 
guided the nation. 

The experiences of the teachers and students will offer sug- 
gestions as to the methods of using the text. 



To My Son 

LEONARD 

whose questions 
come from the mind and 

the heart 
this series is affectionately 

DEDICATED 



-"" Questions in American History 

PERIOD OF DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION 

1. Name the tribes that inhabited America in 1492. 
Give their present location. 

2. Tell how the name Indian originated. 

3. Describe the North American Indian, telling of his 
appearance, mode of life, customs and manners. 

4. Describe the government of the Indians. 

5. Define -or explain, with reference to Indian life, 
the following terms : (a) totem, (b) wigwam, (c) scalp- 
lock, (d) wampum, (e) moccasin, (f) death-song, (g) 
running the gauntlet. 

6. What evidences have we that there existed in North 
America and in South America, previous to the time of 
the discovery of America by Columbus, a race of con- 
siderable advancement in civilization? 

7. Describe Indian warfare in comparison with the 
warfare of the white man, and mention the weapons. - ^<^«^ 

8. Give the names of two famous American authors 
who have written about the Indians, mentioning their 
works, and the results of their writings. 

9. Show how the Indians helped to promote com- 
merce between the early colonies and the European 
countries, and tell what the white men gained from this. 

10. Give an account of the voyage of the Northmen, 
and tell of what practical value this voyage was. 

11. Discuss fully the ancient knowledge of the spher- 
icity of the earth, and its size, and the efifect of this 
knowledge on navigation? 

12. What is the connection between geographical dis- 
covery and the Renaissance? 

5 



6 American History. 

13. Make a list of the various improvements in navi- 
gation that made it possible for European navigators to 
venture out some distance. 

14. Describe fully the different medieval trade routes. 
Give the reasons for the later changes in these routes. 
Draw a map, and on it mark the routes described above. 

15. What were the European ideas of India and 
Cathay? Account for the importance of the work of 
Marco Polo in connection with the knowledge of 
Cathay and India. 

16. Who was Prince Henry of Portugal? In what 
way is he connected with the advance in navigation in 
the 15th and 16th centuries? 

17. Who was Toscanelli? 

18. Give a brief sketch of the life of Columbus. What 
was the theory of Columbus as to the shape of and size 
of the earth ? 

19. Give a brief account of the experience of Colum- 
bus with Portugal, England and Spain. 

20. (a) Give an account of the aims of Columbus in 
his voyages. (b) Describe fully the first voyage of 
Columbus, (c) Give a full account of the three remain- 
ing voyages of Columbus, telling his experiences, and 
what discoveries and explorations he made. 

21. (a) What was the "Line of Demarcation"? (b) 
Account for the name of America being given to the 
New World. 

22. What new geographical problems arose as a result 
of the discoveries of Columbus? 

23. (a) Where were the earliest Spanish settlements 
made? (b) What were the objects of the Spaniards in 
their discoveries, explorations and settlements? 



American History. 7 

24. Describe the discovery of the Pacific Ocean. 

25. Describe the discovery of Florida. 

26. Give a full account of the exploration and conquest 
of Mexico. 

27. Describe fully the voyages of Magellan and the 
discoveries made by him. Why does the voyage of 
Magellan mark an era in geographical knowledge? Ac- 
count fully for its importance. 

28. Give an account of the explorations of the North 
of the Gulf of Mexico. 

29. Give an account of Coronado's expedition. 

30. Describe De Soto's expedition and tell of its im- 
portance. 

31. (a) Discuss the Spanish colonial policy and its 
ultimate result, (b) Account for the decline of Spain 
as a world power. 

32. What were the relations of the Spaniards with the 
Indians in the territories conquered and settled by them ? 

33. Mention five navigators who made explorations in 
the New World after the discovery of Columbus, and 
name the particular territory discovered or explored. 

34. Name two Spanish explorers and give an account 
of the explorations of each of them. 

35. To what extent was geographic knowledge ad- 
vanced by each of the following events : (a) the discovery 
of America, (b) the voyage of Magellan, (c) Vespucius, 
(d) Balboa? 

36. Name the first two permanent Spanish settlements 
in the United States. 

37. Describe the French efiforts in discovery and ex- 
plorations. 

38. Give an account of the voyage of Verrazano. 



8 American History. 

39. Account for the cessation of French activity in 
America. 

40. Give an account of Cartier's activities in the New 
World. 

41. Discuss the beginning of English discovery and 
exploration in the New World. 

42. Describe the voyage of the Cabots, and Its im- 
portance in relation to the history of the New World. 

43. Account for the inactivity of the English during 
the half century following the expeditions of the Cabots. 
Discuss the conditions in England in the latter half of 
the 16th century that marked her as the leading country 
in Europe. 

44. Give a full account of the early English seamen 
and their exploits. 

45. Describe fully the voyages and expeditions of 
Drake. 

46. (a) Discuss the efforts of the English to open 
commercial relations with the Asiatic countries, (b) 
What is meant by the ^'Northwest Passage"? When 
was the passage first made? 

47. What were the reasons for the establishment of 
English colonies and settlements in America? 

48. (a) Describe fully the work of Gilbert, (b) De- 
scribe the work of Raleigh in attempting to settle Vir- 
ginia. 

49. Account for the early failures of English attempts 
to colonize America. 

50. (a) What was the Spanish Armada? (b) How 
did the defeat of the Spanish Armada affect the future 
history of the New World? 



American HistorV. 9 _ 

PERIOD OF SETTLEMENT AND COLONIAL 
DEVELOPMENT 
5L Describe English commercial activity following the 
defeat of the Spanish Armada. 

52. Discuss fully the rise of the Trading Companies 
and Monopolies. 

53. Give an account of the London and Plymouth 
Companies of 1606. 

54. Describe the industrial conditions in England that 
aided the movements of the Trading and Developing 
Companies. 

55. (a) Describe the settlement of Jamestown, (b) 
Account for the weakness of the government of the settle- 
ment, (c) Describe the character of the settlers. 

56. (a) Tell who was John Smith, and how he saved 
the settlement from failure, (b) What was ''starving 
time" ? 

57. Discuss the reorganization of the London Com- 
pany, and tell its influence on the fortunes of the settle- 
ment of Jamestown. 

58. Describe the London Company's scheme for 
profits. 

59. Discuss the land system in the reorganization of 
the settlement. 

60. What was the result of the importation of (a) 
women and (b) of slaves? (c) What was an ''indentured 
servant" ? 

6L (a) Discuss the introduction of representative gov- 
ernment in the colony and its efifect on the colony, (b) 
What is meant by ''representative government" ? 

62. (a) When and why was the charter of the London 
Company annulled? (b) Account for the prosperous 
condition of the colony after 1620. 



10 American History. 

63. (a) Discuss the effects of the passage of the Navi- 
gation Laws on the colony. (b) Describe "Bacon's 
Rebellion." 

64. (a) Give an account of the settlement at St. 
Mary's, (b) Describe the government of Maryland. 

65. What effect did the physiography of Maryland 
have upon the settlement of the colony? 

66. Describe the religious conditions in the colony. 

67. (a) Describe the colonization of the Carolinas. 
(b) Describe the people and life in North CaroHna. (c) 
Describe the settlement of Charleston, 

68. Account for the presence of the various national- 
ities in the Carolinas. 

69. Describe the social and economic conditions in the 
Carolinas. 

70. What was "The Fundamental Constitution"? 

71. Describe the difficulties of representative govern- 
ment in the Carolinas. 

72. Account for the slow growth and development of 
the Carolinas. 

73. Give an account of the settlement of Georgia, tell- 
ing of the purpose, by whom founded, the classes of set- 
tlers, and the date of settlement. 

74. (a) Distinguish between the Pilgrims and the 
Puritans, (b) Give an account of the settlement of 
Plymouth. 

75. Describe fully the Mayflower Compact, and show 
its bearing on later American history. 

76. Describe the government of the colony. 

77. What was the effect of the rise of Puritan power 
in England upon the settlements in Massachusetts. 

7%. How did the policy of Charles I affect the colony ? 



American History. 11 

79. Describe fully the Massachusetts Bay Company, 
and the settlements made by it. 

80. Describe the local government in the colony. Ex- 
plain fully the effect of the physiographic conditions upon 
the form of government. 

81. Describe the settlement of the religious intolerance 
of the Puritans upon the history of New England. 

82. Describe the settlement of Rhode Island by Roger 
Williams and Mrs. Anne Hutchinson. 

83. Describe fully the settlement of Connecticut. 

84. What v^ere 'The Fundamental Orders" of Con- 
necticut. 

85. Describe the founding of the New Haven settle- 
ment. 

86. Describe fully the beginnings of the settlements of 
Maine and New Hampshire. 

87. (a) Describe fully the voyages of Henry Hudson, 
(b) What influence did the discovery of Hudson have 
upon the Dutch companies? What was the Dutch West 
India Company? 

88. Where were the first settlements in New Nether- 
lands made? 

89. (a) Account for the slow development of the 
colony, (b) Who were the ''patroons"? 

90. Discuss the relations between the Dutch and the 
Indians. 

91. Describe the government by the West India Com- 
pany. 

92. Give an account of the relations between the 
Swedes in Delaware and the Dutch in New Netherlands. 

93. (a) Discuss fully the relations between the Dutch 
and the English, (b) Give an account of the conquest of 



12 American History. 

New Netherlands, (c) What were the results of the 
conquest ? 

94. Name the four Dutch governors, and give the 
length of each one's term. 

95. Describe the settlement of New Jersey. 

96. Who were the Quakers? 

97. What were the relations between William Penn 
and the Stuart kings? Give an account of the granting 
of Pennsylvania by the King Charles 11. Give the name 
and the date of the first settlement in Pennsylvania. 

98. Wiiat was "The Frame of Government"? 

99. Discuss religious toleration in Pennsylvania. 

100. (a) Explain the presence of a varied population 
in Pennsylvania, (b) What were the relations between 
the Pennsylvania settlers and the Indians, and account 
for these? 

101. Discuss the industrial conditions in the colony. 

102. Explain why the history of Pennsylvania is so 
peaceful. 

103. Describe fully the attitude of the English govern- 
ment toward the colonies. 

104. What were the three classes of colonies? Enu- 
merate the colonies under each of these classes. De- 
scribe the government of the colonies in each. 

105. What were the Navigation Laws ? Describe them 
fully, and account for their passage. What were some 
of the effects of these laws ? 

106. Describe the efforts of the English home govern^ 
ment to control the colonies. 

107. Give the reasons advanced for the control by 
England of the colonies. 

108. Who was Andres? 



American History. 13 

• 109. What was the effect of the Bloodless Revolution 
of 1689 upon the history of the colonies? 

110. What were the motives for the settlement of the 
various colonies in America by the English ? 

111. Explain fully how land was acquired by the 
settlers. 

112. Describe the physical conditions of the New Eng- 
land colonies. What was the effect of the method of 
settlements in these colonies. 

113. Show the result of the physical conditions upon 
the industries and the products. 

114. What were the effects of physiographic and in- 
dustrial conditions upon the social conditions? 

115. Describe the religious conditions in the New 
England colonies. 

116. Describe the educational conditions in the New 
England colonies. 

117. Describe local government in the New England 
colonies. 

118. Describe the physical conditions in the colonies 
of Virginia, Maryland and the Carolinas. Show the 
effect of the physiography upon the social conditions. 

119. Describe the effects upon the industries and the 
products. 

120. (a) Describe the government in the Southern col- 
onies and show the dependence upon physical conditions, 
(b) Describe local government in the Southern colonies. 

121. Describe the religious conditions and education 
in the Southern colonies. 

122. Discuss the Middle colonies as regards their in- 
dustries, population and large cities. 

123. Describe the social and religious conditions in 
these colonies. 



14 American History. 

124. What were the prominent features of the gor- 
ernments of the Middle colonies? 

125. Account for the inactivity of the French during 
the 16th century. 

126. Explain the cause of the revival of French col- 
onization and exploration in the early part of the 17th 
century. 

127. Give a complete account of the work of Cham- 
plain. 

128. Who was De Monts? Wfiat did he accomplish? 

129. (a) Describe the relations of the French with the 
Algonquin Indians, and give the underlying reasons for 
this relationship. (b) Describe the relations of the 
French with the Irpquois Indians. 

130. What was the effect of the fur trade on the col- 
onization of the French ? 

131. Who was Frontenac? 

132. Give a complete account of the explorations of 
Marquette and Joliet. 

133. Give a complete account of the journeys of La 
Salle. 

134. Explain the relations of the French with the 
English. 

135. What were the Intercolonial Wars? 

136. What was the cause of King William's War, 
and enumerate the events in the colonies. 

137. Give the causes of the Queen Anne's War, and 
the leading events. 

138. Enumerate the causes and the leading events of 
King George's War. 

139. Discuss the general causes of the wars between 
the French and the English in the New World. 

140. Compare the French and the English in America 



American History. 15 

as regards colonies, government, motives for coloniza- 
tion, relations with the Indians, territory. 

141. Discuss the advantages on the side of the French 
at the beginning of the French and Indian War and the 
offsetting disadvantages. 

142. In what way do the three Intercolonial Wars 
differ from the French and Indian War? 

143. Account for the territory in the central part of the 
United States between the Mississippi and the Ohio 
Rivers being French territory instead of English territory. 

144. What was the influence of the Allegheny Moun- 
tains on the settlement of the English? Show in what 
way the fact that the Appalachian Highlands run north 
and south influenced the strength of the English colonies. 

145. Describe the English populations in the colonies 
in 1700. 

146. Give an account of the Ohio Company and its 
activities in the New World. 

147. Describe the Albany Congress of 1754, and its 
object. What did the Conference accomplish? 

148. Give the causes of the French and Indian War. 

149. What were the principal points of attack at the 
outbreak of the war ? 

150. Describe the leading events of the first year of 
the War. Who was William Pitt? Describe his policy 
of conducting the French and Indian War. 

151. Give the provisions of the Treaty of Paris. 

152. Enumerate the results of the war in America. 
What were the effects of the French and Indian War 
on the people in the English colonies? 

153. Discuss the growth of population in the English 
colonies during the first half of the 18th century, treating 
of the intermingling of the various races and nationalities 



16 .' MERicAN History. 

in the colonies. Show what effect it had on the develop- 
ment of the spirit of religious and political liberty in 
the colonies. 

154. Discuss the commercial and industrial expansion 
of the Middle and New England colonies during the 
early part of the 18th century. 

155. Explain fully why the Southern States colonies 
were agricultural colonies while the other colonies were 
commercial and industrial, and discuss the products. 

156. Discuss imports into the colonies, and the exports 
to England and the other European countries. 

157. Discuss the importance of the slave trade in the 
colonies. 

158. Give a full account of the religion and education 
in the English colonies. 

159. Discuss the powers of the Governor and the 
Legislature in the colonies. , 

160. Show how the colonists sought to maintain their 
political liberty during the early half of the 18th century. 

THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

161. What was the "Mercantile System"? 

162. (a) What were the Navigation Laws? (b) 
What were their beneficial effect on the colonies? (c) 
Discuss the execution of the Navigation Laws. 

163. What was the Board of Trade, and what was its 
relation to the commercial and manufacturing life in the 
colonies? 

164. What were the Writs of Assistance ? 

165. What was "The New Policy"? 

166. Describe the purpose of the Sugar Act of 1764. 

167. (a) What was the Stamp Act? (b) Explain 



American Misrory. 17 

why the Stamp Act was so bitterly opposed by the colo- 
nists. 

168. Describe the opposition of the colonists to the 
enforcement of the Stamp Act. 

169. What was the Stamp Act Congress of 1765? 

170. Give an account of the repeal of the Stamp Act. 

171. What was the theory on which the government 
of England claimed the right to impose the Stamp Act 
or any other form of taxation on the American colonies ? 
State the attitude of the colonies. 

172. What was the Declaratory Act of 1766? 

173. (a) Give a complete description of the Town- 
shend Acts of 1767. (b) Tell how these acts were re- 
ceived by the colonists. 

174. Describe the ''Boston Massacre.'* 

175. Account for the control of the British Parliament 
by King George III. 

176. What were the ''royal instructions" to the colonial 
governors ? 

177. Give an account of the ^'Committees of Corre- 
spondence." 

178. What was the "Boston Tea Party"? 

179. Give an account of the Retaliatory or Coercive 
Acts of 1774. 

180. What was the Quebec Act? 

181. Give a detailed account of the work of the First 
Continental Congress of 1774. 

182. Explain the outbreak at Lexington and Concord. 

183. Describe the Battle of Bunker Hill. What was 
the effect of the battle? 

184. Give an account of the work of the Second Con- 
tinental Congress. 



18 American History. 

185. Describe the condition of the American soldiers at 
the outbreak of the war. 

186. (a) What was the reason for the American 
Revolution? (b) When did independence become the 
keyword of American opposition to England ? (c) What 
was the fundamental cause of the desire for independence 
from England ? 

187. Enumerate the (a) general, (b) mediate or indi- 
rect, and (c) the immediate or direct causes of the Revo- 
lution. 

188. (a) Give an account of the adoption of the Declar- 
ation of Independence, (b) Describe the organization of 
the State governments during the Revolution. 

189. Who were (a) the Whigs, (b) the Tories? 

190. Make a list of the events that show the growth 
of the spirit of Union among the colonists. 

191. Make a list of the important events of 1775-1783. 

192. Describe the evacuation of Boston by the British. 

193. (a) Give a list of the events in the campaign 
around New York, (b) What was the purpose of the 
British campaign around New York? 

194. (a) What was Burgoyne's campaign ? What was 
the purpose of Burgoyne's campaign? (b) Give an ac- 
count of Burgoyne's defeat at Saratoga, and its influence 
on the outcome of the war. 

195. Give an account of Washington's retreat through 
New Jersey and its influence on the later events of the 
war. 

196. Describe the difficulties in securing an army. 

197. Describe Howe's campaign around Philadelphia in 
1777. 

198. What was the importance of the treaty with 



AMEaacAN History. 19 

France in 1778? To whom may the successful signing of 
this treaty be attributed ? 

199. (a) Why was the war fought principally in the 
North during the early years? (b) What was the atti- 
tude of the South toward the war? 

200. Give an account of the naval warfare. 

201. Give an account of the campaign in Virginia and 
the Carolinas. 

202. Describe the surrender at Yorktown. 

203. Describe the treaty of Paris, 1783. 

204. What reasons can you give for the success of the 
Americans in the Revolution ? 

205. Give an account of the financial condition of the 
colonies during the war. 

206. What were the Articles of Confederation? De- 
scribe fully the government established under the Articles 
of Confederation. 

207. Make a list of the defects or weaknesses patent 
in. the government under the Articles of Confederation. 

208. (a) When were the Articles adopted by Congress 
and ratified by the last State? (b) To what was the 
delay in ratification due ? 

209. Give an account of the cession of the Western 
Lands by the States in 1781-1786. What was the National 
Domain ? 

210. What was the Ordinance of 1784 ? 

211. What was the Ordinance of 1787? 

212. Give some of the provisions of the Ordinance of 
1787 to show its importance. 

213. Briefly describe the foreign relations under the 
government under the Articles of Confederation. 

214. Tell of some of the controversies among the 
States. 



20 American History. 

215. Discuss fully the financial problems of the govern- 
ment and the commercial conditions of the country. 

216. What was Shay's Rebellion? 

217. Describe the attempts to amend the Articles of 
Confederation. 

218. Give an account of the Convention at Alexandria 
in 1785, stating its purpose and its accomplishments. 

219. Give a complete account of the work of the An- 
napolis Convention of 1786. 

220. Give an account of opening of the Constitutional 
Convention of 1787. 

221. Name some of the leading characters at the Con- 
stitutional Convention. 

222. What are the sources of information regarding 
the proceedings of the Constitutional Convention of 1787? 

223. Describe the "Virginia Plan." 

224. Describe the "New Jersey Plan." 

225. Give in full the "Connecticut Compromise." 

226. Enumerate the compromises in the adoption of the 
Constitution. 

227. Describe the form of government established un- 
der the Constitution. 

228. What were the sources of the Constitution ? 

229. Enumerate some of the features of the State Con- 
stitutions embodied in the Federal Constitution. 

230. Give an account of the ratification of the Constitu- 
tion. 

231. Which was the first State to adopt the Constitu- 
tion ? Which the last ? 

232. Enumerate some of the arguments advanced 
against the adoption of the Constitution. 

233. To whom are we most indebted for the ratification 



American History. 21 

of the Constitution by the States ? Give reasons for your 
answer. 

234. What was 'The Federahst"? 

235. Give the area of the United States in 1789. 

236. Give the population of the United States in 1789. 

237. Describe the cities in 1789. 

238. Describe the society in 1789. 

239. Make a Hst of the leading industries and occupa- 
tions. 

240. What were the leading exports and imports in 
1789? 

241. Discuss the means of communication among the 
several states. 

242. Give a table of the States and Territories of the 
United States at the present time, showing date of ad- 
mission, area, and population. 

243. Make a list of the Presidents and Vice Presi'^ents 
and the States from which they were chosen ; length of 
service, etc. 

244. Describe the election of Washington and Adams. 

PERIOD OF NATIONAL EXPANSION 

245. Give the dates of Washington's administration. 

246. Who were the members of Washington's Cabinet, 
and what offices did they hold ? 

247. What was the first legislation by Congress ? 

248. Describe the organization of the judiciary in 
Washington's administration. ^ 

249. How many members in the House of Representa- 
tives, in the Senate, in 1789? 

250. Enumerate the amendments to the Constitution 




22 American History. 

adopted during the first term of Washington, and give 
the reasons for their adoption. 

251. Discuss the financial policy of the administration, 
and show wherein Hamilton's greatness as a financier was 
evidenced. 

252. What vv^as the Assumption of State Debts? 

253. Explain the location of the Federal Capital at 
Washington in the District of Columbia. 

254. Discuss Hamilton's policy of taxation. 

255. Describe the organization of the United States 
Bank? 

256. What question arose as a result of the chartering 
of the United States Bank ? 

257. What is the difference between (a) strict, and (b) 
loose construction, and what is meant by each term ? 

258. What is the "elastic clause" in the Federal Con- 
stitution ? 

259. Enumerate some of the causes that led to the 
formation of political parties in the United States. 

260. What was the French Revolution ? In what way 
did the French Revolution influence American politics? 
Who were (a) the Republicans, (b) the Federalists? 

261. (a) What was the reason for the 'Troclamation 
of Neutrality"? Give the substance of the Proclamation, 
(b) In what way is Genet connected with American his- 
tory? 

262. Describe the difficulties that arose between Amer- 
ica and Great Britain as a result of the French Revolu- 
tion. 

263. What other difficulties arose between these two 
countries ? Why ? 

264. What was Jay's Treaty of 1795? 

265. Give an account of the Treaty with Spain in 1795. 



American History. 23 

266. Describe the relations of the United States with 
the Indians. 

267. Give an account of the causes and results of the 
Whiskey RebelHon of 1794. 

268. What was Washington's ''Farewell Address"? 

269. Account for the election of John Adams to succeed 
Washington as President. Give the dates of his term of 
office. Who were the opponents of Adams and Pinckney ? 
Of what party were they the leaders ? 

270. Describe the attitude of France toward the 
United States, and to what it led. 

271. What was the ''X. Y. Z." Affair? What was the 
outcome of the affair ? 

272. What were the Alien and Sedition Laws, and why 
were they enacted? 

273. What were the Virginia and Kentucky Resolu- 
tions, and who were their reputed authors ? 

274. Account for the lack of popularity of the Federal- 
ist party, in spite of the eminent leadership of Washington 
and others. 

275. Give the dates of the administration of Thomas 
Jefferson. Of what party was he leader? 

276. Account for the Xllth Amendment to the Consti- 
tution. 

277. What was the nature of the case, ''Marbury vs. 
Madison"? 

278. Who was John Marshall ? Describe his connection 
with the establishment of the centralized power of the 
federal government. What was John Marshall's great 
work in connection with the development of the federal 
government ? 

279. Give an account of the Louisiana Purchase, show- 
ing the reasons for the purchase of this territory. 



24 American History. 

280. Make a list of the various things that the United 
States gained as a result of this purchase. 

281. Give the date of the purchase of Louisiana Terri- 
tory. 

282. What was the Constitutional significance of the ac- 
quisition of the Louisiana Territory? 

283. Describe the Lewis and Clark Expedition, and give 
the reason for its undertaking. What did the expedition 
accomplish ? 

284. Give an account of the explorations of Lieutenant 
Pike. 

285. For what important invention is the year 1807 
noted ? 

286. What were the Barbary States ? 

287. Describe the war with the Barbary Powers. 

288. In what year did the Federalist party disappear as 
a political party? 

289. Give reasons for the duel between Burr and 
Hamilton. 

290. Describe Burr's "Conspiracy." 

291. Describe fully the efifect upon the L^nited States of 
the retaliatory acts of both Great Britain and France dur- 
ing the Napoleonic Wars. Describe the "Continental Sys- 
tem" and the "Orders in Council." 

292. What is meant by "the right of search and impress- 
ment" ? 

293. Describe the attack on the Chesapeake and its 
effect on the American people. 

294. Define Jefferson's policy toward the warring na- 
tions. 

295. What is an embargo? Describe the Embargo of 
1807? 

296. (a) What was the effect on American shipping 



American History. 25 

and /nanufacture of the passage of the Embargo Act? 
(b) vVhat was the Non-Intercourse Act of 1809? 

297. Who succeeded Jefferson as President of the 
United States? Of what party was he the choice? 

298. Describe the troubles between the United States 
and Great Britain. 

299. What were the "Orders in Council"' ? 

300. What retaliatory step did Napoleon take to show 
his anger against the passage of the Non-Intercourse 
Act? 

301. Account for the outbreak of the Indians against 
the authority of the United States in 1810-1811. Describe 
the Battle of Tippecanoe and the defeat of the Indians 
under Tecumseh. 

302. Describe the Congress of 1811. 

303. Give the dates of the second war with England. 

304. Enumerate the causes of the war. 

305. Compare the strength of the warring nations. 
Wherein lay the strength and superiority of the Americans 
over the English? 

306. Describe the plans of campaign at the outbreak 
of the war. 

307. Give an account of the war in the Northwest, and 
its results. 

308. Tell of the decisive naval battles fought. 

309. Of what importance was Perry's victory at the 
Battle of Lake Erie? 

310. Describe the attack on Washington in 1814. 

311. What part did the American privateers play in 
this war? 

312. When was the Battle of New Orleans fought? 
What was its importance? 

313. Give the details of the Treaty of Ghent. 



26 American History. 

314. What was the Hartford Convention, and what 
were its aims ? 

315. Make a Hst of the important results of the war. 

316. Describe the tariff of 1816. 

317. When was the Bank of the United States first 
chartered? What was the purpose of the estabHshment 
of the Bank ? 

318. When was the Second United States Bank char- 
tered ? Why was it granted a charter by Congress ? 

319. Describe the westward movement. 

320. What were the means of communication and the 
routes between the East and the West ? 

321. What was the Cumberland or National Road? 

322. Make a list of the internal improvements. 

323. Show the value of the opening of the Erie Canal 
to the development of the country. 

324. Discuss the characteristics of the life of the settlers 
in the West. 

325. What was the attitude of the settlers towards 
education, and how did they show this? 

326. Give the date of the invention of the cotton-gin, 
and tell who was its inventor. 

327. What influence did the invention of the cotton-gin 
have on the development of the South? 

328. What was the attitude of the North toward 
slavery? Give the reasons for the attitude of the North 
toward slavery. 

329. Describe the opposition to slavery and some of 
the laws passed against it. 

330. Explain why the South favored slavery. What 
was the underlying reason for this attitude? 

331. Describe the Missouri Compromise. Give the 
date of its passage. What was the Mason and Dixon 



American History. 27 

Line? What were the provisions of the Missouri Com- 
promise ? 

332. What were the important results of the Com- 
promise ? 

333. Give the dates of Monroe's administration. 

334. Monroe's administration has been called the "Era 
of Good Feeling." Account for the use of this term. 

335. What part did the Supreme Court have in this 
nationalizing movement? 

336. Describe the purchase of Florida and the reasons 
for it. 

337. What did the United States gain as a result of this 
purchase ? 

338. What is the Monroe Doctrine? Give its pro- 
visions. Explain the reason for the adoption of the 
Monroe Doctrine. What importance has it played in 
American history? 

339. Describe the tariff of 1824. 

340. Describe the election of 1824. In what respects 
did this election differ from previous elections? 

341. In what respects was the Tariff Act of 1828 note- 
worthy and different from the preceding tariff acts ? 

342. What was the ''Exposition and Protest" of South 
Carolina ? 

343. Discuss the attitude of the State of Georgia to- 
ward the Constitution. 

344. Describe the Presidential campaign of 1828. 

345. What is meant by the Jacksonian Democracy? 

346. What was the ''spoils system" — "rotation in of- 
fice" — of Andrew Jackson ? 

347. Who constituted the "kitchen cabinet" of Andrew 
Jackson ? 



28 American History. 

348. Discuss the remarkable development in manufac- 
tures and inventions during the same period. 

349. Explain the importance of the development of 
internal communications during- the decade 1830-1840. 

350. Give the essential elements of the Webster- 
Haynes debate of 1830. Explain the circumstances under 
which the debate took place. 

351. What is meant by ''nullification"? 

352. Explain fully how the question of nullification 
arose in the history of the United States? 

353. What was Jackson's attitude toward nullification ? 
To what extent does his view coincide with the modern 
view of this important question? 

354. Explain the reason for the Compromise Tarifif 
of 1833. 

355. What was Jackson's Indian policy? What was 
the outcome of this policy ? 

356. Give the dates of the administrations of Andrew 
Jackson. 

357. Discuss fully the relations between Jackson and 
the United States Bank, and account for his attitude and 
stand on the question. How did Jackson help to defeat 
the United States Bank? What were the results? 

358. Show the connection between the removal of the 
deposits from the United States Bank and the period 
of speculation and depression that followed. 

359. What was the "expunging resolution?" 

360. Account for the organization and rise of the Whig 
party. 

361. Describe the panic of 1837. 

362. Who was President during the panic of 1837? 

363. What was the ^'specie circular" ? 



American History. 29 

364. What were the results of the Panic ? Describe the 
present Independent Treasury System. Are moneys de- 
posited with national, private, or corporate banks to-day ? 

365. Who were the Abolitionists? Mention the names 
of their leaders. 

366. What was the sentiment of the South on the ques- 
tion of^the abolition of slavery in the United States ? 

367. What was the "gag-resolution" of 1835 ? 

368. What was the Liberty Party of 1840? 

369. Who were the Loco-focos ? 

370. Explain the slogan "Tippecanoe and Tyler Too." 

371. Describe the Webster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842. 

372. Describe* the Anti-Rent troubles in New York. 

373. What was the Dorr Rebellion ? 

374. Describe the relations of Texas to Mexico. Ac- 
count for the fact that Texas was a part of Mexican 
territory. 

375. Why is Texas called the "Lone Star State"? 

376. Who were the candidates of the campaign of 
1844? 

- 377. Describe the annexation of Texas. 

378. Describe the invention of the telegraph by Morse. 

379. Describe the Oregon question. Give the claims of 
the United States to the Oregon territory. 

380. What were the essential features of the program 
of Polk? 

381. What were the real reasons for the war with 
Mexico. Was the United States justified in going to war 
with Mexico? 

- - 382. Describe the events leading to the Mexican war. 

"383. Describe very briefly the war with Mexico, give 
the names of the generals, the battles fought, etc. 
384. What was the Wilmot Proviso ? 



30 American History. 

385. Give an account of the conquest of California and 
New Mexico. 

386. Describe the Treaty with Mexico at the close of 
the war. 

387. What important political questions arose as a 
result of the acquisition of the vast territory from Mexico ? 

388. Name the candidates of the political parties in the 
campaign of 1848, 

389. What problems of government confronted Presi- 
dent Taylor on his inauguration ? 

390. Give an account of the discovery of gold in Cali- 
fornia. Describe the organization of government in Cali- 
fornia. 

391. What was the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850? 
Show its significance to later American history in con- 
nection with the building of the Panama Canal. 

392. What was the Compromise of 1850? Who was 
its supporter and organizer? Describe fully the provisions 
of the Compromise? 

393. What were the effects of the Compromise? 

394. Describe fully the Fugitive Slave Law and its 
workings. 

395. What were the "Personal Liberty Laws"? 

396. What was the "Underground Railroad" ? 

397. What was the importance of the publication of 
"Uncle Tom's Cabin"? 

398. Describe the election of 1852. 

399. Was slarery really necessary for the development 
of the South? 

400. Give the circumstances under which the Nebraska 
Bill was introduced into Congress. What was the Doc- 
trine of Squatter Sovereignty ? Enumerate the provisions 
of the Kansas-Nebraska Act. 



American History. 31 

401. Name the leaders of the anti-slavery movement 
that appeared in the discussion on the Kansas-Nebraska 
Bill. 

402. Describe conditions in Kansas, and their outcome. 

403. What was the Gadsden Purchase? 

404. What was the Ostend Manifesto? Under what 
circumstances was it issued? 

405. Describe the formation and organization of the 
Republican Party. 

406. Who were the "Know-Nothings" ? What part did 
this political party play in the election of 1856? 

407. Name the candidates of the various political 
parties in 1856, and tell what parties they represented. 

408. Make a list of the various causes for the remark- 
able growth and development of the West. 

409. (a) Give an account of the development of rail- 
road transportation, (b) Give an account of the develop- 
ment of water transportation. Describe the foreign trade 
of the United States during the middle of the 19th cen- 
tury. 

410. (a) Make a list of the important inventors and 
their inventions during the middle of the 19th century, 
and tell briefly in what way each helped to develop the 
country, (b) Describe the growth of manufactures in 
the United States. 

411. Give the circumstances under which the United 
States Supreme Court rendered a decision in the Dred 
Scott Case. 

412. What were the effects upon (a) the North, and 
(b) the South of this decision? 

413. What was the Lecompton Constitution? 

414. Describe fully the Lincoln-Douglas Debates and 
their significance. 



32 American History. 

415. What was *'the house against itself" doctrine of 
Lincoln ? 

416. What was Douglas's Freeport Doctrine? 

417. What was the importance of the election of 1858 
in its relation to the Civil War ? 

418. Give an account of the attack by John Brown on 
Harper's Ferry. 

419. Account for the split in the Democratic. Party in 
the election of 1860. What was its significance? 

420. Describe the election of 1860, mentioning the 
names of the political parties and their candidates, and 
the paramount principle in the platform of each party. 

421. Describe the attitude of President Buchanan to- 
ward the threatened secession of the slave States. 

THE CIVIL WAR 

422. (a) Give an account of the secession of South 
Carolina and the other States, (b) Describe the prepara- 
tions made by the Southern States during the administra- 
tion of President Buchanan for the coming struggle. 

423. Make a list of the grievances of the South, as re- 
gards the attitude of the Northern States toward slavery. 

424. What was the Northern view on the question of 
slavery and secession ? 

425. What arguments were advanced by the Southern 
States for the right of secession and the doctrine of 
State sovereignty ? 

426. What was the position of the North on the ques- 
tion of National Sovereignty and the right of the South- 
ern States to secede from the Union ? 

427. Describe in detail the provisions of the Confed- 



American History. 33 

crate Constitution. Name the leaders of the secession 
movement. Who were elected the President and the Vice- 
President of the Confederacy ? 

428. What is the difference between a confederacy and 
a federal government? Show why the Southern States 
banded together to form a confederacy. 

429. Describe the attempts made to avoid an outbreak 
on the question of secession. 

430. Describe Lincoln's inaugural. 

431. Make a list of the important members of Lincoln's 
Cabinet and the position held by each. 

432. Give an account of the outbreak of the war. What 
was the effect of the attack on Fort Sumter ? 

433. Compare the North and the South at the beginning 
of the Civil War. 

434. What was Lincoln's object in declaring a block- 
ade on the Southern coast? 

435. What is meant by belligerency? What is the 
effect of a recognition of belligerency by a foreign 
country? What did the South hope to gain from the 
declaration of belligerency by the European countries ? 

436. What was the attitude of the European nations 
toward the Confederate States? 

437. Show what was the importance of the physiog- 
raphy of the South in the war. 

438. How were the border States saved to the Union ? 

439. What was the Trent Affair ? How was it settled ? 

440. Describe the plans of the year 186L 

44L What did the Union armies gain during the year 
1862? 

442. What was the importance of the capture of New 
Orleans on the outcome of the war ? 



34 American History. 

443. Describe the financial measures in support of the 
war. 

444. Why were a high tariff and a high internal revenue 
tax imposed ? 

445. Give an account of McClellan's Peninsular Cam- 
paign. 

446. Describe the battle between the Monitor and the 
Merrimac and its importance. 

447. What was the Emancipation Proclamation? Give 
the circumstances under which it was issued. What did 
Lincoln hope to gain as a result of its issue? 

448. Lincoln was adversely criticised for the issuance 
of the Emancipation Proclamation as being beyond his 
authority. Where did he find constitutional authority for 
his act? 

449. Enumerate some of the criticisms launched against 
Lincoln during the years 1861-1863 on his conduct of 
the war. 

450. Describe Lee's second invasion of the North, and 
the Battle of Gettysburg. 

451. When did the first invasion of the North take 
place ? What was the result ? 

452. What was the result of the campaign against 
Vicksburg? 

453. What was the effect and result of the Battle of 
Gettysburg on (a) the North and (b) the South? 

454. Give an account of the establishment of the 
National Banks, showing in what way the finances of the 
country were strengthened by this Act. 

455. Describe the attitude of England toward the Con- 
federacy. 

456. Describe the campaign against Chattanooga, tell- 
ing the battles that were fought in the campaign. 



American History. 35 

457. What was the draft? What were the draft riots 
in New York ? 

458. (a) Give reasons for the selection of General 
Grant to command the Union armies, and (b) Describe 
the campaign in the East during the year 1864. 

. 459. Describe General Sherman's campaign in the West 
during 1864. 

460. Describe the final operations about Richmond. 

461. Account for the passage and adoption of the 
' ceenth Amendment to the Constitution. 

462. Describe the assassination of President Lincoln. 

463. Make a list of the reasons for the final defeat of 
the South. 

RECONSTRUCTION 
THE NEW REPUBLIC 

464. What were the results of the war on the South 
and the North ? 

465. Describe the conditions in the South and the 
problems that were to be met in reconstructing the 
South. 

466. The period between the death of Lincoln and 
the end of Grant's administration is called the Period 
of the Reconstruction. Explain this term fully. 

467. Describe in detail Lincoln's plan of reconstruction. 

468. Compare Lincoln's and Johnson's plans of recon- 
struction. Describe Johnson's policy toward the defeated 
South. 

469. Explain the opposition to Johnson's plan. 
' 470. What were the Black Codes ? 

471. What was the attitude of the North in regard to 
these laws ? 



36 American History. 

472. Who were the *'f reedmen'' ? What steps were 
taken to aid them in their changed poHtical status? 

473. Describe in full the attitude of the Northerners on 
the negro question. Account for the differences between 
the President and the leaders in Congress. 

474. Describe the Civil Rights Bill. 

475. Explain and give the reason for the final adoption 
of the XIV Amendment to the Constitution. 

476. Describe the Reconstruction Act of 1867. 

477. Give an account of the political conditions in the 
South. 

478. Describe theXVth Amendment to the Constitution. 

479. Describe the relations between Congress and Pres- 
ident Johnson. 

480. What was the Tenure of Office Act? Explain the 
circumstances under which it was passed. 

481. What is meant by impeachment? In whom is 
the power of impeachment vested? Who are the final 
judges of the impeachment? Give the constitutional 
authority for impeachment? 

482. What was the result of the impeachment pro- 
ceedings ? 

483. Describe the government of the reconstructed 
Southern States. Make a list of some of the abuses under 
these governments. 

484. Describe the Loyal League, the Ku Klux Klan, etc. 
Tell how these organizations finally overthrew the Repub- 
lican power in the South. 

485. Describe the election of 1872. 

486. In what year was Alaska acquired? From what 
country? What was the consideration? 

487. How was the Monroe Doctrine applied during the 
period of the Civil War ? 



American History. Z7 

488. What were the Alabama Claims ? How were they 
settled ? 

489. How was the northwestern boundary between the 
United States and Canada settled ? 

490. Describe the Homestead Act of 1862. How did 
this act aid in the development of the West ? 

491. Account for the decline of the merchant marine of 
the United States. 

492. Describe the refunding operations and measures 
of the United States during the decade of 1870 to 1880. 

493. Describe the discussion that arose over the 
measures to redeem the legal tender notes. 

494. Describe the Legal Tender Case. 

495. Describe the reasons for the panic of 1873. 

496. What was the resumption of specie payments ? 

497. During Grant's administration there were evi- 
dences of gross corruption throughout the United States. 
Describe these. 

498. (a) Describe the campaign of 1876, naming the 
parties, their platforms, and the candidates, (b) What 
was the Electoral Commission of 1876? Explain its 
establishment, (c) What was the outcome of the Com- 
mission? 

499. Show the importance of the large deposits of 
iron on the industrial development of the United States. 

500. What is meant by a corporation ? Account for the 
growth and development of corporations during the last 
half century. 

501. What were the effects of the concentration of 
industries ? 

502. Describe the growth of the tendency toward union- 
ism among the laboring classes. What have the labor 
unions accomplished? 



38 American History. 

503. Describe some of the Railroad abuses, and the 
steps taken to remedy these evils. 

504. Describe the Railroad Commissions. 

505. Describe the causes leading to the Interstate Com- 
merce Act of 1887. 

506. What importance has the immigration of the 
Chinese on the Pacific Coast played? 

507. What was the Greenback Party? 

508. What events led to the demonetization of silver in 
1873? 

509. What was the Silver Purchase Bill of 1878? 

510. What was the result of the election campaign of 
1880? 

511. Describe the campaign of 1884, and the mugwump 
movement. 

512. In 1884 the tariff question became the most im- 
portant issue. Explain the cause. 

513. Describe the industrial tendencies of the period. 
Give the reasons for these tendencies, and the results fol- 
lowing. 

514. Describe the anti-trust legislation, and the tend- 
ency of the present administration toward trusts and 
large corporations. 

515. What was the Farmer's Alliance? 

516. Account for the rise of the People's Party. Give 
an account of the election of 1892, telling of the issues, 
the candidates, and the results of the election. What was 
the Populist platform ? 

517. Describe the Sherman Act of 1890. 

518. Describe the panic of 1893. 

519. What was the most important issue in the cam- 



American History. 39 

paign of 1896? Who were the candidates? On what 
platforms ? and what was the result of the election ? 

520. Describe the annexation of Hawaii. 

521. What was the Venezuelan Question. To what ex- 
tent and in what way did the Monroe Doctrine apply? 
How was the dispute settled ? 

522. Make a list of the important advances in inven- 
tions. 

523. What were the causes of the Spanish-American 
War? 

524. Make a list of the leading events of the war. Tell 
what the United States gained as a result of the war. 

525. What is the relation of the United States to Cuba 
as a result of the war? 

526. Describe the other acquisitions of other territory 
in the Pacific since the acquisition of Hawaii. 

527. Describe the Philippine Question. 

528. (a) Describe the issues in the election of 1900. 
(b) Give an account of the succession of Roosevelt to 
the Presidency. Mention the candidates in the election of 
1904. 

529. What is our present foreign policy? 

530. Discuss the new Monroe Doctrine. 

531. Give an account of the building of the Panama 
Canal. In what ways will the United States benefit from 
the building of the Canal ? 

532. What is the attitude of the United States toward 
the Philippines? 

533. Give the dates of the admission of Oklahoma and 
Indian Territories, Arizona Territory and New Mexico 
Territory as States. 

534. Give the dates of the following fairs and exposi- 
tions: Lewis and Clark, Jamestown and Alaska-Yukon- 



40 American History. 

Pacific. What is the value of these expositions and 
world's fairs? 

535. Describe the movement that has spread throughout 
the country in the matter of the conservation of our 
natural resources. 

536. Give the result of the election of 1908. 

537. Account for the Democratic victory of 1912. 

538. Name a few of the political problems facing the 
present (Wilson) Democratic administration. 

REVIEW 

539. The Dutch West Indies Company encouraged the 
colonization of New Netherlands by making patron 
grants. Tell briefly (a) what this system was, (b) why 
the company encouraged it, and (c) what advantages 
came to New Netherlands because of it. 

540. Mention the incident in American history re- 
ferred to in each of the following passages : 

(a) ''By the rude bridge that arched the flood, 

Their flag to April's breeze unfurled. 
Here once the embattled farmers stood, 

And fired the shot heard round the world." 

— Emerson. 

(b) ''Exult, O shores, and ring, O bells! 

But I, with mournful tread. 
Walk the deck my Captain lies, 
Fallen cold and dead." 

— Whitman. 

(c) " 'Shoot, if you must, this old gray head, 

But spare your country's flag,' she said." 

— Whittier, 



American History. 41 

(d) "Nail to the mast her holy flag, 
Set every threadbare sail, 
And give her to the God of storms, 
The lightning and the gale !" 

— Holmes. 

541. Explain why each of the three following events 
in the Civil War had an important effect on the outcome 
of the war: (a) The battle between the Merrimac and 
the Monitor, (b) the issuing of the Emancipation Proc- 
lamation, and (c) Sherman's march to the sea. 

542. Write concerning severe and peculiar punish- 
ments for crime during the colonial period. 

543. Show the commercial advantages of each of the 
following inventions: (a) The reaper, (b) the cotton 
gin, (c) the steamboat, (d) the sewing machine, (ej the 
telephone, and (f ) wireless telegraphy. 

544. Why did England strike the first blow of the 
Revolution in New England? 

545. State by whom, and under what circumstances, 
each of the following was uttered : 

(a) "Disperse, ye rebels; lay down your arms!" 

(b) "There are the redcoats ; we must beat them to- 

day, or Molly Stark is a widow." 

(c) 'T regret that I have but one life to lose for 

my country." 

(d) "We have met the enemy and they are ours." 

(e) "No terms except an unconditional surrender 

can be accepted." 

(f) "Brave Admiral, say but one good word, 

What shall we do when hope is gone ?" 
The words leapt like a leaping sword : 
"Sail on ! sail on ! sail on ! sail on !" 



42 American History. 

(g) "Then striking his spurs, with a terrible oath, 

He dashed down the hne, 'mid a storm of 
huzzas, 
And the wave of retreat checked its course 
there, because 
The sight of the master compelled it to 
pause." 

(h) "But in a larger sense we cannot dedicate, we 
cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this 
ground. The brave men, living and dead, 
who struggled here have consecrated it far 
above our poor power to add or detract." 

546. Why were the first settlements in this country- 
made near the coast and along the river valleys ? 

547. Mention three difficulties that the early settlers 
had to overcome. 

548. State two ways In which territory has been added 
to the United States and give an example of each. 

549. Describe a New England home before the Revo- 
lution. 

550. Describe the home of a Southern planter before 
the Civil War. 

551. Arrange, in the order of time, the following: (a) 
Missouri Compromise; (b) Dred Scott Decision; (c) be- 
ginning of the Mexican War; (d) Emancipation Proc- 
lamation; (e) Fugitive Slave Law; (f) invention of the 
cotton gin. 

552. Explain briefly two of the Incidents in the United 
States history referred to in the following quotations : 



American History. 43 

(a) "And the heavy night hung dark 

The woods and waters o'er, 
When a band of exiles moored their bark 
On the wild New England shore." 

— Hemans. 

(b) "One, if by land, and two, if by sea, 

And I on the opposite shore will be 
Ready to ride and spread the alarm 
Through every Middlesex village and farm." 

— Longfellow. 

(c) "We are coming, Father Abraham, three hun- 

dred thousand more!" 

553. Name three men prominent in colonial times and 
mention one important service of each. 

554. The War of 1812 has often been called the Second 
War of Independence. Justify this statement. 

555. (a) What was the Whiskey Rebellion ? (b) How 
did Washington treat it ? (c) What principle of our gov- 
ernment was at stake? (d) Give two events prior to 
1840 illustrating the same issue. 

556. Why was there bitter debate over the admission 
of Missouri to the Union in 1819, when just before this 
Illinois and Alabama had been admitted without ques- 
tion, one as a slave state and the other as a free state ? 

557. Jackson's election and administration are said to 
have been "a second democratization of the government." 
(a) In what sense is this true? (b) Under whom was 
the first democratization ? 

558. (a) Show how Hamilton's views are expressed in 
the original provision for the election of the President 
and the Vice-President, (b) How was this provision 



44 American History. 

modified by a subsequent modification of the Constitu- 
tion? (c) How is it nullified in actual practice? 

559. Mention the principal subject or subjects of polit- 
ical controversy between (a) 1830 and 1840; (b) be- 
tween 1840 and 1850; (c) between 1850 and 1860; (d) 
between 1860 and 1870; (e) at the present time. Illus- 
trate by mentioning the principal measures and events 
and the most prominent political persons connected with 
each. 

560. Draw a map of the Southern States and on it 
indicate three points specially guarded in enforcing the 
blockade. Show why each was important. 

561. Show by map the territory under control by the 
Confederates and the Federals at the beginning of 1862, 
1863, 1864. 

562. Mention four financial panics of the past hundred 
years, giving one cause common to all and one peculiar 
to each. 

563. Why may the Magna Charta be considered as one 
of the documents of American history? Mention three 
of its provisions that are repeated in the Constitution. 

564. Name (a) the nations that made permanent settle- 
ments during the sixteenth century, (b) The nations 
that made permanent settlements in the seventeenth cen- 
tury, (c) What was the extent of European settlement 
at the end of the sixteenth century ? 

565. Mention and explain (a) three inducements that 
tended to bring settlers to the American colonies, and 
(b) three difficulties that the settlers had to face. 

566. Give an account of two or three instances in which 
the settlers were aided by the Indians, 



American History. 45 

567. Name (a) two nations whose settlements were, 
for the most part, north of the 40th parallel; (b) one 
whose settlements were largely south of the 40th parallel. 

568. What nation had lost all of its possessions south 
of the 40th parallel before the eighteenth century ? Under 
what circumstances? 

569. Show why differences in the manner of living 
made conflicts between the English settlers and the In- 
dians almost inevitable. 

570. Give in chronologic order a summary statement 
of four important French explorations in the New World. 
Mention the approximate date of each. 

571. Explain how a trading company established in 
New England became the self-governing colony of Mas- 
sachusetts Ba}^ 

572. Give an account of the attempt of James II to 
unite the Northern colonies under Andros, touching on 
the (a) purpose of the union, (b) the extent of territory 
affected, (c) the character and the end of the rule of 
Andros. 

573. Give two reasons why Canada did not Join the 
neighboring- colonies in the Revolution. 

574. Explain how, under the Articles of Confederation, 
(a) the States were represented in Congress, (b) a vote 
in Congress was taken. 

575. Write on the quarrel between the United States 
and France during the administration of John Adams, 
touching on (a) causes, (b) preparations for war in the 
United States, (c) final settlement. 

576. State the constitutional argument by which slavery 
was defended. 



46 American History. 

577. What effect did the Civil War have on the com- 
merce and manufactures of England? Give the feelings 
of the various classes of English society toward the North 
during the war, and account for this feeling. 

578. What was Jefferson's attitude toward the main- 
tenance of a strong navy and what was the condition of 
the navy of the United States at the outbreak of the War 
of 1812? 

579. "Fortune had smiled especially upon the Spanish, the 
French and the English, and had granted vast possessions and 
untold opportunities to them in this greatest expansion in record- 
ed history ... At first sight Spain would seem to be the 
power destined to survive. She first among the nations planted 
her flag in the western lands and she extended its sway with mar- 
velous rapidity for three-quarters of a century." 

Using the above mentioned paragraph quotation as an 
introduction, complete the paragraph by a statement of 
facts showing why Spanish dominion did not extend in 
America. 

580. Give an account of the Dutch West India Com- 
pany, touching on (a) powers and privileges; (b) char- 
acter of the settlement made under its authority; (c) 
means used to secure an agricultural population; (d) 
causes of dispute with its colonists. 

581. Describe the origin and status of the ''poor whites" 
of the South. 

582. How did the troubles between Parliament and the 
King of England advance the causes of liberty in Amer- 
ica during the reigns of (a) Charles I, (b) George III? 

583. Mention an essential particular In which the 
French colonies in America differed from the English 
colonies in (a) government, (b) industries. How was 



American History. 47 

each of these differences an (c) advantage to the French 
in war, and (d) a disadvantage? 

584. During what years of the American Revolution 
was most of the fighting done in the Northern States ? In 
the Southern States ? What was the British plan for the 
conquest of the South? 

585. Mention "two historical facts to show the inade- 
quacy of the government under the Articles of Confed- 
eration to deal with (a) foreign affairs, (b) domestic 
affairs. How were these remedied by the Constitution? 

586. What means were employed to reduce the public 
debt during the administrations of (a) Washington, (b) 
Thomas Jefferson? 

587. Describe the three important routes by which the 
emigrants reached the Middle West before the railroads 
were built. In what respects did the railways help the 
growth of the West? 

588. State the most important provision of each of the 
following: (a) The Specie Circular of 1836; (b) the 
Independent Treasury Act of 1846; (c) the Legal Tender 
Act of 1862; (d) The Bland-Allison Act of 1878. 

589. Show why the Emancipation Proclamation was 
impracticable in 1861 and necessary in 1863. 

590. When and how did the United States free the 
slaves in the loyal States? 

591. Mention three causes that split the Republican 
party in 1872. 

592. Give a brief account of the industrial disorders 
during the administration of Hayes. Why are such dis- 
orders more frequent now than during the colonial days ? 

593. What conditions in Europe (a) aided and (b) 



48 American History. 

Avhat retarded American colonization? Illustrate by ref- 
erence to the French and the English colonies. 

594. By what means did the colonial assemblies control 
to some extent the actions of the governors appointed by 
the King? How did England try to prevent this control, 
and with what result ? 

595. Discuss the basis of representation under (a) the 
New England Confederacy, (b) the Albany Plan of 
Union, (c) the Articles of Confederation, and (d) the 
present Constitution. 

596. Draw an outline map of the eastern coast line of 
the United States and on it locate, by name, St. Augustine, 
Boston, Charlestown and Plymouth. 

597. Draw an outline map of New York, and on it 
locate, by name. White Plains, the Hudson and the Mo- 
hawk rivers. West Point, Stony Point, Saratoga, Niagara 
Falls, the Lakes Champlain and George. 

598. Connect with each of the following some event in 
American history: De Soto, Magellan, Cartier, Drake, 
Raleigh. 

599. If you had been an early English settler in colo- 
nial times, in which of the English colonies would you 
have preferred to settle? Give reasons for your answer. 

600. Who were (a) the Tories, (b) the Minute Men, 
(c) the Rough Riders, (d) the Barnburners, (e) the Ku- 
Klux Klan? 

601. (a) Name five regions acquired by the United 
States between 1800 and 1870, and give the name of the 
country from which each was acquired, (b) Name five 
regions acquired by the United States since 1870. 



The 

Progressive Series 

Answers in History 

for 
DRILL, TEST AND REVIEW 



By 

ISAAC PRICE, A.M. 

Washington Irving High School. 
New York Evening High School {or Men. 

Author : 

"Direct Method of Teaching English to Foreigners," "Compre- 
hensive Question and Answer Book," "OutUnes 
in American History." 



HINDS, MAYDEN & ELDREDGE, Inc. 
NEW YORK PHILADELPHIA 



Copyright, 1916, by 
HINDS, HAYDEN & ELDREDGE, INC. 



Entered at Stationers' Hall, London. 
All rights reserved. 



PREFACE. 



A practical Question and Answer Book should be com- 
prehensive in scope without having too many and too de- 
tailed questions. It should furnish abundant material for 
drill, test, and review of the subject by means of well 
arranged and well graded questions, and should aim to 
cultivate in the student those qualities brought out in a 
good recitation by a skilled teacher. 

With these objects In mind this series of books has been 
written. The separate books are intended, not only 
for beginners, but also for students pursuing advanced 
and review work. Care has been taken to make each book 
complete. The papers given at civil service, college en- 
trance, and Regents examinations have been carefully 
culled for suitable questions, and the material arranged 
topically and logically to emphasize principles as well as 
essential facts. The answers are supported by the latest 
authorities and in consonance with the accepted texts for 
the best elementary and secondary schools. To make the 
work more helpful, diagrams, illustrations, maps, topical 
outlines, and glossaries have been included. 

Acknowledgment is due to the many experienced teach- 
ers who have freely offered suggestions and criticisms de- 
signed to make this a most helpful "text-book." 



The aim of this book is to give the leading facts and features 
in the development of the United States, not through military 
achievements, but through the amalgamation of the various na- 
tionalities contributing to the "melting pot", through the leveling 
influences of democratic tendencies, and through the economic 
expansion made possible by a wealth of natural resources. Geo- 
graphic conditions as influencing our growth and development 
have been emphasized in common with the ideals that have 
guided the nation. 

The experiences of the teachers and students will offer sug- 
gestions as to the methods of using the text. 



To My Son 

LEONARD 

whose questions 
come from the mind and 

the heart 
this series is affectionately 

DEDICAITED 



Answers in American History 

PERIOD OF DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION 

1. The Indians living east of the Mississippi River were divided 
into three families, according to their language: (1) the 
Muskogees, south of the Tennessee River, and comprising the 
Creeks, the Seminoles, the Choctaws, and the Chickasaws ; (2; 
the Algonquins, including the Mohegans, the Pequots, the Nar- 
ragansetts of the New England region, the Delawares, the Pow- 
hatans of Virginia, the Shawnees of the Ohio Valley, and the 
other tribes around the Great Lakes; (3) the Iroquoians occu- 
pying the territory between the Great Lakes and the Middle 
Atlantic States and isolated tracts in North Carolina and Ten- 
nessee, the chief tribes of which were the Six Nations: the 
Senecas, the Oneidas, the Cayugas, the Onondagas, and the 
Mohawks, the Hurons, — the Eries, the Tuscaroras, and the 
Cherokees. West of the Mississippi River were the Sacs and 
Foxes (Algonquin), the Dakotahs, the Shoshoneans, the Co- 
manches, the Apaches, the Modocs, and the Californian tribes, 
and others that appear in the history of the development of the 
West. 

The Indians of the present day are to be found on the reserva- 
tions, particularly in the West and in the State of Oklahoma. 
There are a number in the East. 

2. Columbus named the natives whom he found on the Island 
of San Salvador Indians because he thought he had reached 
India. 

3. The Indian's skin is copper-colored (Red Man), his eyes 
small and dark, and his hair long, coarse, and jet-black; his 
body, straight and slender ; his movements agile, quick, and quiet. 
The Indian was a warrior and hunter, and spent his time chiefly 
in these pursuits. His body was painted in bright colors to 
make him terrifying when he went to war. The Indian woman, 
or squaw, cooked the food, built the wigwam, cultivated the soil 
and raised the crops of grain, and did all the menial work be- 
sides taking care of her family. The Indians had no domestic . 
animals except the dog, and therefore, moved from place to 
place. 

53 



54 American History. 

The Indian was a most expert woodsman; he was quick and 
sure of foot, quick-witted, keen of sight, strong of endurance. 
His powers of imitation of the sounds of animals were amazing. 
Courage and fortitude he possessed to a remarkable degree. He 
was treacherous, revengeful, cruel, and had all the vices of the 
weak and cowardly. The Indian believed in a future life, in the 
Happy Hunting Ground, and he was therefore buried with all 
his implements and tools of the hunt and war. 

4. There was imperfect government among the Indians. The 
largest division was the family with its tribes allied because of a 
more or less common language. The tribes were divided into 
clans, made up of persons supposed to be descended from the 
same female ancestor. The sachem was the elected head of the 
clan. The property was owned in common. The council of 
sachems decided all the important matters of the tribe. There 
was no spirit of union among the tribes of the same family, and 
consequently, they fell an easy prey to their enemies and to the 
increasing number of white settlers. 

5. (a) The totem was the figure of some animal worked in 
beads or cut in wood and was the symbol of the tribe, (b) The 
wigwam was the "house" of the Indian, and was made of a 
number of poles stuck in the ground and tied together at the 
top, and covered by skins, with one flap for an entrance, (c) 
The lock of hair left by the Indian on his scalp after shaving as 
a challenge to the enemy who might desire to take his scalp. 

(d) Wampum consisted of certain shells, strung together for 
purposes of ornamentation, to bind a treaty, or as a means of 
exchange of values, or money, (e) The moccasin was a shoe 
or leggin made of the skin of an animal, frequently ornamented ; 
it was the footgear of the Indian, (f) The Indian scorned to 
complain ; when hurt fatally he met his death bravely by chant- 
ing the "death-song." (g) The gauntlet was a device to torture 
a prisoner, and consisted of two files of Indians between which 
the prisoner was to run. The Indians struck at him with their 
tomahawks, knives, etc., while he was running. If the prisoner 
survived, he was set free. 

6. In certain parts of the country, particularly in the Mississippi 
Valley region, there are large mounds, shaped like animals. In 
them are found the remains of what is believed to be a still 



American History. 55 

earlier race known as the Mound Builders. But nothing definite 
is known about these earlier races. 

7. The Indian never fought in the open if he could help it ; he 
lay in hiding behind rocks, trees, in forests; he tried to ambush 
his enemy. His weapons were the tomahawk, the bow and 
arrow, and later, the gun. The white man fought in the open, 
scorned to strike his enemy from behind, but later, he was forced 
to adopt the tactics of the Indian. 

8. Longfellow wrote the famous poem, "Hiawatha" ; James 
Fenimore Cooper wrote the series of novels, "The Leatherstock- 
ing Tales." Both of these writers ascribed to the Indian as 
permanent characteristics, qualities which the Indian seldom 
possessed. Their works have given the impression that the 
Indian was always the victim of the white man. 

9. During the early colonial days the settlers were greatly 
indebted to the Indians for their valuable instruction in the 
methods of conquering the forests and the wild animal life. The 
ways of the Indians, those best suited for life under the rugged 
conditions and circumstances of the time, were quickly adapted 
by the whites, — the ways of hunting, fishing, and trapping; the 
value and importance of the Indian corn; the mode of Indian 
travel in the trackless woods and upon the pathless waters. The 
colonists were thus able to maintain their hold upon the new 
World. 

But with this there was an interchange of products. For the 
ftir from the numerous fur-bearing animals in the forests, the 
Indians bartered the white man's utensils and fire-arms. The 
cloths and horses of the whites were taken in exchange for the 
products of the field and forest. They also learned the vices of 
the whites, without a corresponding number of his virtues. The 
curse of rum was indelibly stamped upon the life of the Indian. 
The Indian did not lend himself to conversion to Christianity. 

10. The Northmen were the inhabitants of the Scandinavian 
peninsula, now Norway and Sweden, and were bold seafaring 
men who, in their long boats crossed the oceans to Iceland and 
Greenland. In 1000, A. D., Leif Ericson sailed from Norway to 
Greenland, but lost his way, and in his search for the island ex- 
plored the coast of what is now the New England States as far 
south as Connecticut and Rhode Island. The land was named 



56 American History. 

Vineland. More people came over, doing an extensive trade 
with the Indians in furs, etc. The ruins of the Round Tower at 
Newport, R. I., are the only remaining evidence of the brief 
occupancy by these bold searovers. 

11. The ideas of the people of the Middle Ages as to the size 
and shape of the earth were : that the earth was flat, surrounded 
by oceans and covered by the dome-like heavens ; that the land 
terminated at the Pillars of Hercules, now Gibraltar; that the 
sea which lay west of the Pillars of Hercules was the same that 
washed the shores of Asia; that a vessel saihng from Europe 
could sail westward and finally reach the East, always excepting 
the fear that the vessel would fall off when it reached the end 
of the earth. 

12. The period of the Renaissance is a period of the broaden- 
ing of human intelligence ; of the beginning of the modern spirit 
of inquiry, of exploration and discovery; the reaching out for 
new things, for new knowledge, for new lands. All were forms 
of the spirit of the Renaissance. "The greatest fruit of the 
Renaissance was America." 

13. Among the improvements in navigation were: the inven- 
tion of the mariner's compass, transmitted by the Arabs from 
the Chinese; the astrolabe, by means of which the latitude of a 
place could be determined; the improvements in the vessels 
themselves, from the low to the very high deck. 

14. The three trade routes between Europe and the East were : 

(1) From Europe across the Mediterranean Sea, across the 
Isthmus of Suez, through the Red Sea, Indian Ocean and to India. 

(2) Across the Mediterranean Sea, through the Bosporus, the Sea 
of Marmora, the Black Sea, to Asia and across Asia to Cathay 
(China) and India. (3) Across the Mediterranean Sea to Asia 
Minor, across this territory to the Persian Gulf, etc., to the 
Indian Ocean and to India. 

In 1453, Constantinople was captured by the Turks, and before 
the end of the 15th century all the centers on the Black and the 
Mediterranean Seas suffered the same fate. The amount of 
commerce passing through these cities was considerably re- 
duced, greater restrictions were placed upon European mer- 
chants, property became unsafe, and there was little reciprocal 
trade between the barbarous Turks and the Europeans. The 



American History. 57 

growth and development of the wealth and status of European 
society gave rise to increased demands for these imported goods. 
The Red Sea route was closed with the capture of Egypt; but 
the Turks themselves had secured the monoply of trade along 
this route. 

15. The hazy and somewhat imaginative views of Cathay 
(China) and India held by the Europeans were due, in part, to 
the writings of Marco Polo, who had spent many years at the 
Court of China, and who, on his return to Europe, wrote an 
account of the country and its riches. This resulted in the 
belief in the unlimited commercial possibilities of the Eastern 
countries. 

16. The nations of Western Europe rose in importance as a 
result of this attitude of the Turks. Among the foremost was 
Portugal, whose ruler. Prince Henry, encouraged scientific so- 
cieties and navigators. Voyages were made by Portuguese sea- 
men along the western coast of Africa. 

17. Toscanelli was a well-known doctor of Florence, who 
wrote on the geographical theories of his age. His map of the 
world, as it was then known, shows the proximity of Asia to 
the western coast of Europe and also locates, in favorable posi- 
tions, various islands that we know to be mythical. Columbus 
made use of such a map in his voyage across the Atlantic. 

18. The few facts in the Hfe of Christopher Columbus that 
are agreed upon by all authorities are : that he was the son of a 
wool-comber, born in Genoa, that he led a seafaring life in his 
early youth, and that he was a map and chart maker by occu- 
pation; that he went on many voyages, and probably visited the 
western coast of Africa and the Northwestern coast of Europe; 
he was a deep student of geography and navigation. His theory 
was that the earth was spherical and that the East could be 
reached by sailing due west around it. 

19. Prince Henry of Portugal inclined to Columbus's views 
and sent out an expedition to test the theory. The captain in 
charge of the vessel returned after a short voyage, but before 
another could be sent out, Prince Henry died. Columbus spent 
many years in endeavors to induce the sovereigns of Spain to 
equip an expedition for him. He pointed out the commercial 
and other advantages that would be derived by the nation, as 



58 American History, 

well as the opportunity to help the spread of Christianity among 
the Asiatics. The struggle between the Spaniards and the Moors 
was the greatest obstacle to the fulfilment of his wishes. Finally, 
after negotiations regarding the terms upon which Columbus 
was to assume command of the expedition, the fleet was fitted 
out. Through Columbus's brother, an attempt had been made 
to induce Henry VH of England to fit out an expedition, but 
the impression made by Columbus's emissary and the unsettled 
internal condition of England doomed the mission to failure. 

20. (a) The aims of Columbus were: to'find a new and safer 
route to India and Cathay; to spread the doctrines of Chris- 
tianity in Asia ; to bring hoards of gold and treasures back to 
Spain, (b) There were four voyages. The first lasted for a 
period of ten weeks, terminating in the discovery of San Salvador, 
on Oct. 12, 1492. The fleet of three vessels, the Nina, Pinta, and 
the Santa JMaria left the Port of Palos, Spain, and with but a 
brief stop at the Azores for repairs, the voyage was continuous 
till the small island of San Salvador, in the Bahamas, was 
reached on Oct. 12, 1492. There were times when the sailors 
threatened mutiny, but the steadfast purpose and indomitable 
courage and will of the commander finally won. (c) The sec- 
ond voyage of Columbus resulted in the discovery and 
exploration of the southern coast of Cuba, in 1493, which 
he believed to be the main land of Cochin China. Hayti 
was the northern end of Cipango (Japan). The third voyage of 
Columbus terminated in the discovery of the northern coast of 
South America, the mouth of the Orinoco River, In 1502-1504 
Columbus made his fourth and last voyage in which he skirted 
the coasts of Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama in a vain at- 
tempt to find the strait that would lead him to the Indian Ocean. 

21. (a) In 1498, the same year as that in which Columbus made 
his voyage to South America, the Portuguese Vasco da Gama 
sailed around Africa and returned from India with a rich cargo. 
As a result of the claims of Portugal, the Pope issued a decree 
granting to that country the right to ownership of the lands of 
Asia for the purpose of missionary work. The claims of Spain 
had to be met, and Pope Alexander issued a bull (1493) arrang- 
ing a division of the newly discovered lands between these two 
countries. The treaty signed in the following year settled the 



American History. 59 

meridian located 370 miles west of the Cape Verde Islands as 
the "Line of Demarcation." All land east of the line was to be 
Portuguese territory, while all west of that line was to be under 
the dominion of Spain. Brazil, which lay to a great measure 
east of the line, thus became Portuguese territory, and remained 
such until the revolt in the early part of the nineteenth century, 
(b) In 1500, Cabral, a Portuguese navigator, made "a voyage 
to India" on which he explored the coast of Brazil. In 1501-1502, 
the expedition of Americus Vespucius skirted the coast of Brazil 
for a distance of 700 leagues south of Cape St. Roque, reaching 
35 degrees south latitude. An account of this expedition and its 
results fell into the hands of a German publisher, Waldsemuller, 
who in 1507, named the continent America after Americus 
Vespucius. 

22. Many questions arose as a result of the spread of the 
knowledge of the discoveries and explorations of Columbus, and 
Vasco de Gama. Among them were : Was the newly discovered 
land really a part of Asia? Could the strait leading to the Indian 
Ocean be found by sailing due west? In what direction were 
China, India and Japan? Only with the many discoveries and 
explorations that followed were these questions answered. 

23. (a) The earliest Spanish settlements were naturally made 
in the regions known to them as a result of previous discoveries. 
The islands of the West Indies, Hayti, Cuba, Porto Rico, etc., 
were first settled. Next, the mainlands of Central America, the 
northern coast of South America, and Mexico, were settled. 
(b) The search for gold, samples of which had been brought 
back by Columbus and other explorers, the conquest of the 
wealthy territory from which the Indians mined the gold, the 
desire to spread the doctrines of Christianity among the heathen 
Indians, and the commerce in the tropical products, were the 
motives underlying the Spanish expeditions. 

24. The search for gold led to the establishment by bold Span- 
iards of settlements on the Isthmus of Panama, and it is among 
these adventurers that we find Balboa. Inspired by the sugges- 
tion that the wealthy lands of "Ormuz and of Ind" lay to the 
south, Balboa, with a trusty and hardy band crossed the Isthmus 
and beheld the South Sea before him. (1513.) 

25. In the same year, 1513, Ponce de Leon (Governor of Porto 



60 American History. 

Rico) was commissioned to explore the land for wealth. His 
expedition landed on Easter Sunday on the coast of Florida 
which it explored. 

26. In 1517, Cordova led a slave-catching expedition to the 
coast of Yucatan, where he noticed the advanced civilization of 
the Indians, and signs of great wealth. In 1518 the west coast of 
Mexico was explored. During the following year, 1519, Cortez 
was sent to take possession of the country, and instead of the 
civilized peoples whom he expected to meet, was opposed by the 
barbarous Indians of Mexico. He had to fight his way till he 
reached the capital of Mexico, where the Spaniards, resorting 
to treachery and brutality, overcame the Indians. The chief of 
the Indian Confederacy, Montezuma, was tortured to compel 
him to divulge the secret hiding places of the golden treasures. 

27. In 1519, Magellan, a Portuguese navigator, sailing under 
the Spanish flag, believing that a new route might be found 
around the southern end of the new continent which would be 
shorter than the one around Cape of Good Hope, sailed along 
the coast of South America, and through the Strait of Magellan 
into the "South Sea" which he crossed. Because of its com- 
parative calm, he named it the Pacific Ocean. He struck across 
the Pacific, and after sailing for almost two years, he reached 
the savage islands of the Philippines, where he was killed in an 
encounter with the natives. Their untold sufferings so reduced 
the force that only one vessel with 18 survivors from the original 
expedition reached Spain. The voyage of Magellan, for the first 
time, definitely demonstrated that Asia could not be reached 
through a strait that pierced America. It further showed that 
America was a continent distinct from Europe and Asia, and 
clearly proved that the earth is spherical. 

28. In 1519, Pineda skirted the Gulf of Mexico and showed the 
hopelessness of the search for a strait leading to the Indian 
Ocean. 

29. In 1540, Coronado, in an attempt to reach the famed 
"Seven Cities of Cibola" where gold and silver were supposed 
to exist in fabulous quantities, advanced northward from a 
point on the Gulf of California. The Canons of the Colorado 
were reached, and then, turning eastward, he is said to have 
gone as far as Kansas. 



American History. 61 

30, Actuated by the successes of Pizarro in his conquest of 
Peru, in 1521, De Soto, a member of the expedition, determined 
to rival his chief. He landed in Tampa Bay in 1539, and wan- 
dered for three years northward in an attempt to reach El Do- 
rado, the land of gold, about which he had heard so much from 
the Indians. The expedition practiced untold cruelties on the 
Indians, demanding food, slaves, and guidance to the land of 
gold, from each Indian tribe in turn, and when they refused, the 
grossest of barbarities were inflicted upon them. The Indians 
showed their hostility at every step of the Spaniards, on every 
occasion. The hardships plus the attacks of the Indians wore 
away the number of the invaders. The expedition resulted in 
the discovery of the Mississippi River, where De Soto, who had 
died, was buried. The few survivors floated down the river and 
reached a Spanish settlement on the Texan coast. 

31. (a) The Spanish colonial policy was one of complete con- 
trol over the colonies and settlements. The "Council for the 
Indies" controlled all trade with the colonies. Viceroys, gover- 
nors, military commanders, were appointed to reside in and 
govern the colonies. The courts for the adjudication of legal 
matters were also under their control. There was but a slight 
measure of self-government in the municipalities, the councils 
being composed of men who were at first elected, but later ob- 
tained their offices by inheritance or purchase. Her industrial 
policy was one of monopoly and restriction. Mining of gold and 
silver was encouraged, agriculture was somewhat less encour- 
aged, because of the similarity of the Spanish and colonial prod- 
ucts, the raising of olives, hemp, flax, etc., was restricted; only 
two fleets were allowed to sail annually from Seville and Cadiz 
to the colonies, and then only on royal license, for which ex- 
cessive payment was demanded, (b) The expulsion of the 
Moors; the persecution of the Spanish Jews, who were the 
artisans and bankers of the nation; the religious persecutions 
in the Netherlands and other territory under Spanish dominion 
resulting in wars with the other European nations; the destruc- 
tion of her sea power; the moral decadence of her people, — all 
contributed to eliminate Spain as a first rate power. Internal 
troubles brought her to such a pass that she gave but slight 
attention to the spread of her power in the New World. 



62 American History, 

32. The Spaniards treated the Indians in the territories con- 
quered by them with great harshness and severity. In the 
Perus and Mexico, the Indians were made slaves to work in 
the mines. 

33. See answers 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29. 

34. See answers to 24-29. 

35. (a) That there was land to the west of Europe and Africa; 
(b) that the earth is a sphere; (c) that North America and 
South America are separate continents; and (d) the discovery of 
the Pacific Ocean. 

36. St. Augustine, Florida, in 1565, and Santa Fe, New Mexico, 
in 1582. 

37. In 1534-1535, Cartier discovered and explored the Gulf and 
River of St. Lawrence; in 1540-1543, Cartier and Roberval at- 
tempted to colonize the region of the St. Lawrence region, 

38. The rivalry between France and Spain in Europe led to 
the extension of this rivalry to the New World. French' seamen 
plundered the Spanish treasure ships as they returned from 
America. One of these was under command of the Florentine 
Verrazano, who captured vessels that carried gold from Mexico 
to Spain. Francis I, King of France, now sent Verrazano to 
seek a passage to China. In 1524, he reached South Carolina and 
proceeded northward, exploring the coast as far as Maine. He 
is said to have entered New York Bay. The search for gold 
and for the strait to Asia was a complete failure. 

39. The wars between France and Spain, between Spain and 
the Netherlands, between England and Spain, the religious per- 
secutions, the disturbed industrial conditions, the lack of funds, 
led to the cessation of the activity of one country or another 
in the New World. It was toward the beginning of the 17th cen- 
tury that the work of exploring and exploiting the Americas 
again began and continued without cessation. 

40. In 1534-1535 Cartier made explorations in the Gulf and 
River of St. Lawrence. An attempt to found a permanent settle- 
ment a few years later in 1543 by Cartier and Roberval failed. 

41. With the beginning of the 16th century, there followed as 
a result of the discovery of America and the African route to 
India, a broadening of geographical knowledge, an increase in 
maritime activity, and the transfer, from the Mediterranean 



American History. 63 

countries to the Atlantic seaboard, of the seats of commercial 
and maritime supremacy, and England rapidly forged to the 
front as a sea-power. 

42. In 1497, John Cabot, a native of Genoa, obtained a com- 
mission from Henry VH authorizing him to make a voyage 
across the Atlantic under the English flag. His ambition, too, 
was to find the shorter and safer water route to India. He 
reached Labrador, Newfoundland, or Cape Breton — it is not cer- 
tain which. In the following year he was accompanied by his son 
Sebastian with whom he explored a considerable part of the coast 
of the United States. 

The results of the Cabots' voyages were : The basis of the Eng- 
lish claim to land in the New World was laid; the fisheries with 
the Newfoundland fisheries were greatly encouraged, and the 
Grand Banks have since been one of the greatest fishing grounds 
in the world. 

43. The reasons for the inactivity of the English were : The 
results to follow from the explorations of the Cabots were not 
promising; England was not an important commercial nation; 
her trade was carried on by foreigners ; it was not until the 
reigns of Henry VIII and Elizabeth that there awoke in the 
English a desire to reach out for the prizes that were to be had 
as a result of discovery and exploration ; she then became an 
important maritime nation ; there was no longer any fear of the 
dominance of the other European nations. 

In England the shipbuilding industry underwent complete 
revolution and took great strides forward ; English Newfound- 
land was a training place for the hardy seamen who began to 
give England her place on the sea; the rising commercial and 
maritime spirit of the English and the opposition to the re- 
ligious persecutions on the continent kindled the "national 
spirit." 

44. In 1560 John Hawkins began his slaving voyages to the 
west coast of Africa and transported the slaves to America. In 
1572 Drake commanded an expedition to the Isthmus of Panama, 
in retaliation for the destruction of Hawkins' fleet in the Gulf of 
Mexico. There he captured Spanish treasure ships, sacked the 
towns, and otherwise inflicted great damage on the Spaniards. 

45. In his attacks on the Isthmus of Panama he first saw the 



64 American History. 

Pacific Ocean and determined to sail on its waters, and at the 
same time attack the wealthy cities of Peru. In 1577 he set sail 
with a well-equipped fleet of five vessels, passed through the 
Strait of Magellan, and attacked and plundered vessels and 
towns along the west coast. He sailed as far north as Oregon, 
entered the Bay of San Francisco, took possession of the coun- 
try in the name of the sovereign of England, and named it New 
Albion, and then sailed across the Pacific in his further quest 
for Spanish vessels and for adventure. He reached England 
three years later with but one vessel of his fleet. In addition to 
bringing vast stores of treasure, which he presented to his 
sovereign, he brought on the war between Spain and England. 

46. (a) With characteristic English persistence, the English 
people set about to find a shorter and safer route to the Asiatic 
countries. The dominance of the other routes by the other 
European countries impelled her to look toward the north of 
the Americas for the "Northwest Passage." In 1576-78, Fro- 
bisher's expedition discovered Frobisher's Bay. In 1585-87, John 
Davis made three similar attempts, but failed in his object. 
(b) The "Northwest Passage" was the strait or passage north 
of the continent of North America supposed to connect the 
Atlantic and the Pacific and thereby shorten the route to Asia. 
In 1903-1906, Captain Amundsen sailed his vessel the entire dis- 
tance around North America, and was thus the first to sail 
through this passage. 

47. The reasons for the establishment of colonies by the Eng- 
lish were : There still existed in the minds of the English, due 
partly to the adventures of Drake and the reports of the Span- 
ish treasures, and the idea that America was the "golden land" ; 
the New World was a source of products that Englishmen 
needed; the American colonies were to be midway stations on 
the voyage to Asiatic countries ; they would serve as bases of 
operations against the Spaniards. 

48. (a) In 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert founded a colony in 
Newfoundland-. Sickness, dissensions, etc., reduced the num- 
bers, and the colony was a failure. Gilbert, on his return to 
England for help, was lost in midocean. (b) In 1584, Sir Walter 
Raleigh, half-brother of Gilbert, sent another expedition to 
plant a colony, on the coast, named Virginia, in honor of the 



American History. 65 

Virgin QueeA Elizabeth. In 1585, a company of one hundred 
men attempted a settlement on Roanoke Island, but it was 
entirely destroyed. No trace of it has been found to this day. 

49. The reasons for the early failures of the English were : 
the persons selected for colonization were of the criminal and 
vicious classes who had no moral or physical stamina, and who 
could not agree among themselves ; the places chosen for coloni- 
zation were not conducive to permanent settlement by pioneers ; 
the main work consisted in the search for gold and for the 
route to India ; the adventurous and romantic atmosphere cre- 
ated around these expeditions gave them an air of unreality. 

50. (a) The Spanish Armada was the great fleet fitted out 
by the Spaniards to attack England in the war between England 
and Spain. In 1588 this fleet was destroyed by the English 
seamen, who, in their small vessels, quickly outsailed the larger 
Spanish boats, and attacked them on all sides. The English 
were under the command of Hawkins, Drake, Raleigh. (c) 
The Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea were the scenes of 
numerous attacks on the Spanish ships by the English vessels 
during the next few years, until the sea power of Spain had 
almost disappeared. The defeat of Spain gave the English free- 
dom to pursue their policy of settlement and colonization. The 
"national spirit" kindled anew and the English went forth with 
added vigor to make commercial and rnaritime conquests. 

PERIOD OF SETTLEMENT AND COLONIAL 
DEVELOPMENT 

5L With the discoveries and the explorations in the New 
World, the center of maritime an4 commercial activity moved 
from the Mediterranean Sea to tne Atlantic Coast. In addition, 
the fruits of the Renaissance were beginning to be seen definitely 
and the standards of living of the masses changed. The prod- 
ucts of the New World, as well as those of the Asiatic coun- 
tries were in demand. Reports of large treasures instilled a 
desire to reach the Americas. The commercial treasures of the 
East were transported via the Atlantic^Indian Ocean route. The 
Eastern products became cheaper as a result of the increased 
commerce due to the safety of the voyage and the large fleets 



66 American History. 

of vessels sailing from all countries to the East. From America 
came new products, fish, furs, sugar, tobacco, dyewoods, precious 
metals and stones, and gave rise to increased commerce. 

52. This increased commerce of the 16th century gave rise to 
the Trading Companies and MonopoHes. Each nation en- 
deavored to gain a monopoly of commerce for its citizens, and 
aided all in the establishment of these companies with money 
and legislation. Spain and Portugal took complete control, and 
made them governmental monopolies. The northern European 
countries, where the people had a voice in the government, en- 
couraged the formation and organization of trading companies. 
England, France, and Holland chartered several prominent trad- 
ing companies, assigning to each a veritable monopoly of the 
trade in respective sections of the globe. The charters gave them 
large and broad powers and such legislative and financial aid as 
they required. The English Companies were : The Muscovy 
(Russia) Company, the Eastern Levant (Eastern Mediterranean 
Countries), The Guinea (Africa), the East India (India), the 
London, the Plymouth, the Virginia, the Guiana, the Newfound- 
land, the Bermuda Companies. 

53. The London and the Plymouth Companies, chartered in 
1606, were formed '"to make habitation, plantation, and deduce 
a colony of sundry people into that part of America called Vir- 
ginia." The charter members were prominent noblemen and 
merchants in England. The London Company received a patent 
of land between the 34th and 41st parallels of north latitude, 
while the Plymouth Company received the territory between the 
38th and 45th parallels. Neither Company was permitted to 
found a colony within one hundred miles of the colony first 
planted by the other in the overlapping territory. 

54. The increased demand in England and on the continent 
for the products of the East and the New World, due to the rise 
in the standard of living; the increased English maritime fleet; 
the necessary interchange of commercial products, manufactures 
in excess in England, as woolen cloths, etc. and the need for raw 
materials; the required naval stores that could be secured only 
from the Americas if she did not wish to be dependent upon 
European countries. The increase in the population of England 
and the need for a region to which she might send her excess 



American History. (ij 

population, the large number of people who were out of work, 
the rapid strides she was making as an industrial, commercial 
and manufacturing nation. 

55. (a) The London Company (in 1607) sent an expedition 
of one hundred twenty men to colonize Jamestown. They set- 
tled on low and damp ground at the mouth of the James River, 
(b) Complete control of the colony was placed irt the hands 
of a council appointed by the King, and resident in England. 
Thus, they did not know the actual conditions under which 
the colony had to live. The thirteen colonists appointed to the 
council had little influence, and dissensions quickly arose. The 
president of the council was inefficient and indifferent. More- 
over the charter provided for a communal arrangement of the 
products, the great part being the "royalty" of the King and the 
Company. The whole scheme was impractical. 

(c) The settlers were not suited for the hard work they were 
to do ; they were of the lazy and indifferent type, desirous of ac- 
quiring wealth with but little work, and soon succumbed to the 
rigors of an unbroken country. 

56. (a) John Smith, one of the colonists, quickly came to the 
fore as the leader resident in the colony. Under his charge the 
colonists organized for protection against the Indians ; they were 
compelled to labor for their food ; they were urged to plant and 
do the work that was assigned to them on pain of punishment 
and starvation, (b) Smith had been accidentally injured and was 
compelled to return to England to receive the necessary medical 
attention. During his absence in 1609, the colony fell upon bad 
times. The population fell from 600 to one-tenth that number, 
and these had decided to return when a ship arrived with pro- 
visions and more colonists. Lord Delaware was the new gov- 
ernor. 

57. In 1609, the Company was reorganized, with a Governor 
resident in the Colony and vested with absolute powers. The 
settlements in the Colony were to be made within a distance of 
two hundred miles north and south of Point Comfort, the 
patent granting to the Company the land from sea to sea from 
west to northwest. See 57, 58, 59. 

58. The profits of the London Company were to come from the 
sale of supplies to the colonists, from the purchase of all products 



68 American History. 

frorn the colonists, from the sale of these in Europe where high- 
est prices were to be had for them, from the sale of licenses for 
others to trade with the colonists, from the duties collected from 
all ships entering the colony. 

59. The profits of the Company amounted to little. The Com- 
pany had expended large sums of money, with small returns. 
The Company, therefore, decided to grant land to the colonists 
on certain conditions: (1) Each colonist who worked for a 
certain number of year3 during which time the products of his 
work were to be given to the Company could, at the end of that 
time, receive a gift of 100 acres. (2) Each investor in the Com- 
pany received a strip of land as a bonus for each share of stock, 
the stock being valued at about $100 each. (3) Colonists who 
would help to transport servants and others and pay for their 
transportation would receive a large section of land. 

60. (a) With the importation of women into the colony, orig- 
inally in payment for tobacco by the colonists, in 1619, the colony 
took on another phase in its growth and development. The 
home became an ideal. The colonists decided to make Virginia 
their home. The price of these women rose many times, (b) 
In the same year the first cargo of slaves was brought to the 
colony. The slaves did the hard manual labor of clearing the 
forests, caring for the tobacco crops, etc. The number of slaves 
at first was small, (c) The indentured servants were white men 
sent from England because they were either vagabonds, beggars, 
or people out of work ; or because they were sent to the colony as 
punishment for some crime or other offense. They were trans- 
ported by the Company at the Company's expense, the amounts 
repaid from their labors during a period of years. Many of them 
were of good character, others were criminals, who later became 
prominent and useful citizens, opening up the western regions 
to colonization and settlement, their estates being established 
on the outposts of Virginia. Others were the forerunners and 
ancestors of the "poor white trash," or "poor whites" of slavery 
days. 

61. (a) The London Company, originally organized with a 
few members, soon became a favorite investment with a large 
number of monied people, and increased very quickly, so that 
by 1618, there were several hundred members and stockholders. 



American History. 69 

many of whom had Hberal views and were opposed to the tyran- 
nical rule of James II. The four general "courts'' or meetings 
held annually were the occasions of open criticism of the royal 
policy. In 1618, the Company ordered that the authority of the 
governor in Virginia should be limited by a council of members 
selected by the Company and the House of Burgesses, composed 
of two Burgesses elected by popular vote from each borough, 
plantation, or settlement, eleven in number at the time. The 
House of Burgesses first met in 1619. This was the first repre- 
sentative assembly in the colonies. The fact that the colonists of 
Virginia had some voice in the management of their colony made 
for a greater interest in the government of the colony. There was 
also the natural English born desire of every one, planter, servant, 
and laborer alike to share in the election, (b) By "representative 
government" is meant the vesting of governmental functions in a 
body of representatives chosen by popular vote. 

62. (a) Angered by the criticisms of the liberal members of 
the Company, and this step of introducing a form of govern- 
ment that was hateful to him, James ordered suit brought in the 
English courts for the annulment of the charter. The charter 
was declared void, and in 1624, Virginia became a royal colony. 
The governor was appointed by the King, but the House of 
Burgesses continued as before, (b) The modifications in the gov- 
ernment of the colony, the establishment of the colony on a firm 
basis, the increased production of tobacco and other crops requir- 
ing a large number of laborers soon led to a large immigration to 
Virginia. The population increased rapidly and the rivers, the nat- 
ural means of communication in Virginia, were soon bordered by 
plantations. 

63. (a) In Virginia their effect was particularly marked. The 
prices of the products, especially tobacco, fell, and serious indus- 
trial conditions threatened. In addition, the outburst against 
the tyrannical rule of Governor Berkeley was fanned into white 
heat, and Bacon's Rebellion followed in 1676. (b) Bacon's 
Rebellion (1676), was headed by Nathaniel Bacon, a 
young planter who led a party in opposition to Governor 
Berkeley when he refused to give sufficient aid to the defence of 
the borders against the Indians. The arbitrary and tyrannical 
rule of the governor and his coterie, their control of the House 



70 American History. 

of Burgesses, and the practical nullification of the rights of the 
people, aided Bacon. The death of the leader brought an end 
to the revolt. However, reforms followed in the government, 
and the Indians were finally and severely punished. 

64. (a) The Catholics were persecuted in England. They were 
deprived of many political and civil rights and privileges. In 
1632, Lord Baltimore obtained a grant of land north of Virginia 
and extending to the 40th parallel where he could be free to 
found a colony for his persecuted co-religionists. On his death, 
his son continued the work, and a settlement was founded in 
1634, at St. Mary's on Chesapeake Bay. (b) Maryland 
was a proprietary colony, that is, the ownership of 
the colony was vested in the family of Lord Baltimore 
and his descendants. The governor was appointed by and was 
responsible to him only. All grants of land came from the Lord 
Proprietor. At first the governors were members of the family, 
and the colony had an excellent government. In accordance with 
a provision of the patent, an assembly was called, consisting of 
the freemen of the colony, which later became more and more 
representative. 

65. Favored as Virginia was in possessing a fine rich soil and 
a mild climate, the colony likewise became agricultural, and 
tobacco formed the most important staple. Large plantations 
were laid out, and Maryland soon became prosperous. Immi- 
gration was encouraged by the patent of a plantation of at least 
one thousand acres to any one who brought or induced twenty 
able-bodied men to settle there. Indentured servants were en- 
titled to at least fifty acres on the termination of their period of 
service. 

66. Originally founded as an asylum for the persecuted Catho- 
lics, Maryland became the home of these religionists. But it was 
impossible to shut out members of the other faiths, and Lord 
Baltimore encouraged Protestant immigration in order to secure 
a good-sized population. These latter increased in number until 
they outnumbered the Catholics. 

67. (a) In 1663, Charles II rewarded many of his favorites by 
granting them the region south of Virginia, now the Carolinas. A 
few of his friends desired to relieve the distress of the people of 
the Barbadoes by settling them in the Carolinas; others desired 



American History. 71 

io make considerable profit, but the results were failures. (b) 
North Carolina had been settled before this time by numbers 
of indentured servants who had become free and by criminals 
who sought refuge from the strict laws of Virginia. Later 
many Quakers and Puritans settled here. The settlers were, in the 
main, thrifty and industrious, and were widely scattered on 
small farms along the rivers. Having no seaport, their communi- 
cation was chiefly through Virginia. The development of the 
colony was slow and sure, (c) In 1670, Charleston, South Caro- 
lina, was founded, its settlers being from England, and rein- 
forced by some from the Barbadoes. Many immigrants from 
other European countries increased the population. 

68. The Carolinas contained a large proportion of Europeans 
other than English because of the persecutions of the Huguenots 
during the reign of Louis XIV, and the terrible wars against the 
German states by that same monarch which drove a large number 
of the German Protestants to the New World. A large number 
of Swiss emigrated under the leadership of one of the Swiss 
noblemen. All these were of the strong and sturdy class that 
assured the success of the colonies. 

69. The two Carolinas presented contrasts in social and economic 
life and conditions. South Carolina had its center at Charleston 

.where most of the wealthy planters lived. They had large num- 
bers of slaves and extensive plantations, and their life was some- 
what similar to that of Virginia, excepting that, because of the 
physiography of the colony, plantation life was not so isolated. 
In North Carolina, the plantations were rather smaller, and the 
number of slaves considerably smaller. South Carolina had its 
outlet to the sea, while North Carolina had to seek communica- 
tion through its northern neighbor. Social conditions in southern 
Carolina were refined compared to the rough and crude life of 
the northern settlement. 

70. "The Fundamental Constitution" was the foundation for 
the government of the Carolinas, drawn up by Lord Shaftes- 
bury and the philosopher, John Locke. It was undemocratic, 
aristocratic, arbitrary, and unsuited for its purpose. 

71. Considering the classes and kinds of settlers in the Caro- 
linas, it is easily seen that there would be opposition to the arbi- 
trary rule of the proprietors. Continual disputes and struggles 



72 American History. 

for representative government, and opposition to the arbitrary- 
rule of the council appointed by the proprietors mark the history 
of the colonies. After a time, the settlers secured the right to 
elect some of the colonial officers, and to have all bills for rais- 
ing revenues originate in the Assembly. 

12. The physiography of the country, the lack of good sea- 
ports, the mixed population, the struggles with the proprietors, 
the succession of bad governors and councils, the Navigation 
Laws, the difficulties with the Indians and with Virginia, all of 
these tended to retard the development of the colonies. 

12i. Georgia, the last of the Thirteen Colonies, was settled at 
Savannah, in 1733, to provide a refuge for the indigent debtors 
whom the laws of England treated most harshly. Free passage, 
free land, free tools, were provided for the settlers, and thirty-five 
families settled at Savannah, The colony grew very rapidly, and 
other classes of people, among them Germans and Scotch High- 
landers, increased the population. In 1752, Georgia became a royal 
colony. It formed a strong bulwark against the Spaniards in 
Florida. 

74. (a) A group of the Puritans who were persecuted in 
England because of their views on religious matters, went to 
Holland to reside, because that country was the only country 
where various religions were tolerated, (b) After remaining* 
there for twelve years, and fearing that their children would 
grow up as Dutch, they returned to their native country. The 
threatening outbreak in Europe (The Thirty Years War, 1618- 
1648) between the Catholics and the Protestants was another 
incentive for their return to England. They secured (from the 
London Company) a permit to settle in the northern part of 
Virginia. After a stormy voyage, during which the winds blew 
them out of their course, they landed at Plymouth, in December, 
1620. 

75. The London Company did not specify the conditions under 
which they could settle. Accordingly, in order to avojd any 
danger of failure because of the absence of rules of government 
after they landed, the Pilgrims drew up the "Mayflower Com- 
pact," to which all subscribed, and in which all the signers 
promised "due obedience and submission" to the laws which 
should be made by the "civil body politic." It was the first 



American History. 73 

"American" constitution drawn up by the people whom it was 
destined to govern. 

76. The freemen of the colony met in mass meetings and elected 
their officers and adopted the laws. The freemen were the orig- 
inal signers of the Compact and those later admitted to the 
privileges of the colony. The founders of new towns were ad- 
mitted to citizenship in the towns. Local affairs were con- 
trolled entirely by the freemen. In 1639, because of the large 
number of towns and the difficulties of travel to and from Boston, 
the towns elected "deputies" who represented them in the "general 
court" or legislative body at Boston. Thus there was local self- 
government as well as representative government within the 
colony. 

77. With the rise of the Puritan power in England, the English 
government decided upon a course of persecution and prosecution 
of these sects. The number of emigrants to Massachusetts in- 
creased and there sprang up a very large number of towns. With 
the culmination of the Puritan power in the rule of Cromwell, the 
Puritan colonies were considerably favored, and they rapidly 
forged to the front. 

78. During the reign of James I, the number of disputes with 
the rapidly rising Parliament were numerous, but not so numer- 
ous and bitter as during the reign of his son, Charles I. The dis- 
putes between the Puritan individualistic, democratic Parliament 
and the monopolistic aristocratic government can be attributed to 
the demand of the ParHament for a government in accordance 
with English rights on questions of taxation and other matters 
vital to the political creed of the Puritans. It was soon in power, 
and the Puritans became politically powerful. During the rule of 
the Stuarts the Puritans were persecuted, but the "Separatists" 
received the brunt of the ill-will of Archbishop Laud. These be- 
came unbearable and led to the emigration of the Separatists to 
the New England Colonies. 

79. The Puritans opposed the King both in religious and 
political matters. Parliament was their bulwark of inherited 
and acquired liberties. Considering these conditions in Eng- 
land as burdensome, a number of Puritans applied for and re- 
ceived a charter from the King granting them permission to 
settle on a strip of land between the Charles and Merrimac 



7A American History. 

Rivers and three miles beyond each. This was the Massachusetts 
Bay Company. During that and the following year about one 
thousand Puritans removed their goods and chattels to New 
England. John Winthrop became the Governor. The charter 
was also taken to New England because it contained no pro- 
vision as to the place of meeting, etc. 

The growth of the colony was rapid. In 1630 Boston was 
founded. Within a short time there were founded several other 
towns: Cambridge (Newtown), Charlestown, Dorchester, Rox- 
bury, and Watertown, due to conditions in England, and to 
the inducements held out to them by the Massachusetts Bay 
Company, which was merged with the colony of Plymouth. 

80. The government consisted of a governor, deputy-governor, 
and eighteen assistants or councillors, elected by the Puritan 
freemen. The meetings of the General Court were to be held 
four times a year. Within a short time, the far distant towns 
each sent two deputies to Boston to represent them at the meet- 
ings of the General Court. The deputies sat with the assistants 
at first, but later became a separate body, and finally consti- 
tuted the lower house of the legislature. See Answer 76. 

The English town, or parish, formed the model of their 
local governments. The town government was a pure democ- 
racy. Meetings were held, which were attended by all the free- 
men. These voted for the selectmen and other town officials 
who were subject to definite restrictions in the conduct of their 
offices. Important questions were decided only at the town 
meetings. The government was entirely under the control of 
the citizens. 

81. The final outcome of the dispute was the letting down of 
the bars of religious intolerance in the New England Colonies. 
The spread of the people, Puritans and others, led to the forma- 
tion of a very large number of settlements. 

82. Roger Williams was a learned Minister in Salem. He was 
the first practically to state the modern doctrine of the separa- 
tion of the State from the Church in America, and for this he was 
threatened with banishment. He escaped to some friendly In- 
dians, and with a few adherents, founded Providence in Rhode 
Island. 

Mrs. Anne Hutchinson differed from the Puritans on the mat- 



American History. 75 

ter of certain doctrines of theology. Her followers founded 
Newport and Portsmouth in Rhode Island. 

83. In 1636, a number of colonists from the settlements of the 
Massachusetts Bay Colony moved to the fertile Connecticut 
Valley and made settlements at Hartford, Windsor, and Weather- 
field. This movement was sanctioned by the officials of the for- 
mer colony. At the end of the year, under the instructions given, 
the towns sent deputies who met in the General Court. This 
was the beginning of independent government in the colony of 
Connecticut. 

84. The "Fundamental Orders," adopted in ,1639, was a 
covenant similar to the Mayflower Compact, providing a series 
of laws for the government of the Colony of Connecticut. This 
is supposed to be the first written constitution in the United 
States. It is remarkable in that it recognized the people them- 
selves as the ultimate and supreme authority. There was no 
religious qualification for citizenship, and the officials of the 
colony and the towns were elected by the citizens. The laws of 
the colony were made by the representative assembly. 

85. In 1638, the colony of New Haven was founded on the 
Long Island Sound by a body of Puritans from England. These 
were Puritans of the severest type, and only church members 
could vote or be admitted to office. Like the other colonies and 
settlements local and general government was provided, similar 
to that in the others. This colony was later absorbed by the 
other Connecticut colony. 

86. The settlements first made in Maine and New Hampshire 
were by traders who carried to England the furs, fishes, oils, 
lumber, etc., found in abundance in those colonies. 

87. (a) The Dutch seamen of the 16th century had a rich 
traffic with Portugal and her colonies in the East. Holland be- 
came the leading maritime nation in the world and was "the 
Mistress of the Seas" until defeated by the English in 1663. 
The Dutch navigators followed every known route to the East 
Indies and China. They were also bent on finding "the Northwest 
Passage." It was while in search of this route in 1609, that 
Henry Hudson, an Englishman saiHng under the flag of the 
Dutch East India Company, turned westward across the Atlantic. 
He reached Delaware Bay and then New York Bay which he 



^6 American History. 

entered, and sailed up the river which was named after him. He 
spent several weeks here, exploring the territory, and trading with 
the Indians, (b) The reports brought back by Hudson, together 
with his traffic with the Indians, were so encouraging that a few 
years later, in 1613-1614, trading posts were established at New 
Amsterdam and Fort Orange, the present sites of New York and 
Albany, respectively. Dutch activity in the New World did not 
begin, however, until 1621, after the twelve-year truce between 
Holland and Spain. In that year the Dutch West India Com- 
pany was incorporated, the objects being to trade with the Indians 
and to attack the possessions of Spain in the New World. 
This Company was given a monopoly of Dutch trade on the 
coasts of Africa and America and was to colonize unsettled terri- 
tory. Colonists were sent out by the Company and trading posts 
established. 

88. Forts, really trading posts, were established at points on 
the Delaware, opposite Philadelphia (Fort Nassau), Fort Orange, 

(now the site of Albany) and at other points besides New Amster- 
dam (New York City). 

89. (a) Industrial, religious and political conditions in Hol- 
land were so satisfactory to the stolid, thrifty Dutch that they 
were loath to leave their native land for the New World with 
its uncertainties and hard work. Consequently the growth of 
New Netherlands was very slow, (b) In order to encourage 
the migration of a large number of the Dutch to New 
Netherlands, the Company made the following offer to the 
"patroons." Individuals who would undertake to bring 
fifty adult settlers were granted parcels of land extending 
eight miles on either bank of the Hudson, or sixteen miles on 
one bank, the land extending indefinitely into the country. The 
patroons were to be given local authority over their settlers, but, 
in matters of war and commerce, they were subject to the rules 
and regulations of the Company. Of course, there were certain 
rights granted to the settlers, but they were of slight importance 
in comparison with the powers of the patroons. Very few 
patroonships were granted, and many of these were later bought 
up by the Company. 

90. The relations between the Iroquois and the Dutch were 
most friendly, the latter seeking the exchange of blankets, 



American History. 77 

utensils, guns, and rum for pelts. But the Algonqulns along the 
Hudson River were unfriendly and terrible Indian wars were of 
frequent occurrence. 

91. Since the main object of the Company was to secure the 
rich trade in the colony, the government established was fit only for 
a trading post. The government was a bad one. The autocratic 
rule of the Governor-General, whose sole interests were the inter- 
ests of the Company, and his Council of Five, with all their 
powers of legislation and execution, made the people extremely 
dissatisfied, particularly the English who settled in the colony. 
The Dutch, too, considering their liberal government in Holland, 
and the English governments in the colonies, made several at- 
tempts to secure a more representative assembly. But the attempts 
were, in the main, failures. It was not until the English occu- 
pancy of the colony, under Governor Nichols, that true representa- 
tive government was established in the colony. 

In 1638 the monopoly of the Dutch West India Company 
was taken away, and the extremely profitable trade in furs and 
rich lands was now open to all settlers. This led to the immi- 
gration of large numbers from Europe and from the neighboring 
settlements. 

92. The Swedes had settled at Fort Christiana, on the Dela- 
ware, in Dutch Territory. During the Thirty Years War, while 
the Dutch and the Swedes were allied in the struggle, the Swedish 
settlement flourished. At the close of the war, however. Gov- 
ernor Stuyvesant sent a military expedition that brought the posts 
under the Dutch domination, and New Sweden became a part of 
New Netherlands. 

93. (a) The relations between Holland and England on the 
continent and in America were very friendly. They had both 
fought against Spain; they were bound together by common ties 
of kinship, religion, and political interests. But, beginning with 
the middle of the 17th century, commercial rivalry between the 
two nations became very strong, and in 1651, the English Navi- 
gation Act, aimed directly at the Dutch, was passed. This was 
followed by war between the two countries, (b) New Nether- 
lands was the first territory to be seized by the English. An ex- 
pedition, consisting of three vessels, carrying troops, was sent to 
New Netherlands, where it appeared in August, 1664, and cap- 



78 American History. 

tured New Amsterdam, (c) The names of the colony and the 
chief settlements were changed, the government was changed, but 
the customs and manners of the people did not change except with 
the slow change of time. The possessions of the inhabitants were 
retained by them, but they were compelled to swear fealty to their 
new masters. Its result was highly beneficial to the inhabitants ; a 
more representative form of government was introduced a few 
years later. The rich trade of the colony was now in the hands 
of the English, and the Atlantic coast no longer was broken by 
a colony of a rival nation. 

94. Peter Minuit, 1626-1631 ; Wouter Van Twiller, 1634-1641 ; 
Wilhelmus Kieft, the worst of the four governors;cJ 641-1645; and 
the last and best, Peter Stuyvesant, 1645-1664, 

95. Soon after the conquest of New Netherlands, the Duke of 
York granted a large portion of the territory to his two favorites, 
Berkeley and Carteret. Their grant, between the Hudson and the 
Delaware Rivers contained a mixed population, and became the 
colony of New Jersey. The colony itself had few important 
events, but there were many disputes over the rights of the pro- 
prietors and the inhabitants, and with the colony of New York 
over the questions of boundary and commerce. In 1702 it became 
a crown colony. 

96. The Quakers may be regarded as Puritans of an ex- 
treme type. They repudiated all outward ceremonies, affected 
a certain form of dress, believed that spiritual guidance came to 
each according to his own beliefs, urged religious toleration, 
and democracy in politics, and favored the abolition of all social 
ranks and distinctions. 

97. William Penn, a friend of the monarch, was the son of 
an English Admiral to whom the King was greatly indebted, both 
for money and for services rendered. Penn was also intimate 
with the King's brother, the Duke of York. During the reign 
of Charles II, the Quakers, like all Dissenters, were severely per- 
secuted. Penn was a Quaker, and, having had his fortune re- 
duced through financial reverses, and desiring to do something 
for his unfortunate co-religionists, applied to the sovereign for a 
grant of land in payment of the debt due him. This grant the 
King willingly gave him. In 1681, the first settlement was made 
on the Delaware, and a year later, the city of Philadelphia 



American History. 79 

was laid out upon a more healthful site and one better adapted to 
commercial purposes. 

98. "The Frame of Government" was the fundamental char- 
ter or constitution given by Penn directly to the inhabitants of 
the colony. He did not seek to enlarge his powers; he rather 
favored popular rights; the people were to be the rulers. The 
legislature, consisting of the Assembly and the Council, was 
elective, and became the real rulers in the colony. The powers 
were divided among the Governor and the two legislative 
houses, though in a few years, the lower and more popular As- 
sembly secured the right to initiate all legislation, and the 
Council then ' ecame appointive with merely supervisory powers 
and duties. 

99. Religious toleration in Pennsylvania followed as a result 
of the strong Quaker beliefs. See answer 96. 

100. (a) One-half of the colony was English, the other half 
was composed of Swedes, Finns, Dutch, Welsh, Germans, who 
settled there, because of the liberal conditions in the colony, 
(b) Penn's dealings with the Indians were such as to secure to 
the settlers their undying friendship. He insured his ownership 
of the land by purchase from the Indians, and due justice was 
rendered them by the peaceful and peace-loving Quakers. Then 
too, the troublesome Delaware Indians had been severely pun- 
ished by the Iroquois, the friends of the English. 

101. Agriculture was the chief industry; grain and cattle were 
exported, and commerce was carried on with the mother country. 
Pennsylvania became one of the very few manufacturing col- 
onies. 

102. See answers 96-100. 

103. The control of England over the colonies was placed in the 
hands of committees, boards, and councils. The Lords of Trade 
exercised authority during the years 1675 and 1688, collecting 
information as to trade, disseminating this information in Eng- 
land, advising the government, securing the enforcement of the 
Navigation Laws, and trying to secure co-operation between the 
home and the colonial governments. Revenue officers were sta- 
tioned among the colonies, but the enforcement of the home law3 
was indifferent, 

104. The three classes of colonial governments were: Royal, 



so American History. 

Proprietary and Charter, based mainly upon the mode of selection 
of Governor. 

In the Royal and the Proprietary colonies, the governor was 
aided and advised by a council, the members of which, and the 
governor himself, were usually appointed by the Crown or the 
Proprietor. The duties and powers of the governor were set forth 
in his commission or designated in the grant in the case of the 
royal proprietary colonies. In the Charter colonies the governor 
was elected by the people. 

The Royal colonies were : Virginia, New Hampshire, New York, 
New Jersey, North and South Carolina, and Georgia. 

The Proprietary colonies were : Pennsylvania, IMaryland, and 
Delaware. 

The Charter colonies were Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode 
Island. 

105. Following the neglect of English commerce during the 
reign of the first two Stuarts, James I and Charles I, the gov- 
ernment adopted a more definite policy of control. The domi- 
nance of the Dutch who had been carrying nearly three-fourths of 
English commerce in Dutch bottoms, was threatened by the pas- 
sage of the Navigation Laws, in 1651, which required that all 
goods brought to England from the other continents should be 
brought in English ships. This was loosely enforced, so that it 
was strengthened in 1660, by the addition of further restrictions, 
among which was that certain colonial products — sugar, tobacco, 
dye-woods, indigo — could be shipped to England only, or other 
English colonies. In 1663, another law provided that goods 
imported in the colonies could come only from English ports. In 
1672, a law was passed which required that goods from one colony 
to another could go only by way of England, or pay a very high 
duty. 

It is evident that only the English were to benefit by the 
enforcement of these laws. Thus, the interests of the English 
shipbuilders were looked after; only the English were to be the 
buyers of colonial products, and they could, therefore, fix the 
market price; only English merchants were to be the exporters 
to the colonies, and they could, therefore, fix the selling price ; the 



American History. 81 

Dutch and other nations were to be eliminated from among the 
traders with the colonies ; the English government was to profit 
from the licenses and duties, imposed upon vessels and other 
cargoes, port duties, etc. 

106. The charter of Massachusetts was annulled by order of an 
English court in 1684, on the ground that the Quakers were per- 
secuted, that it denied the validity of the acts of the English Par- 
liament, which were not passed by the colonial legislatures, that 
the Navigations Laws were not enforced. The charters of the 
other New England colonies were demanded, but were refused. 
Plans were made for the union of all the New England colonies, 
and for the destruction of the proprietary rights in the colonies 
of Delaware, Maryland, and the Carolinas. 

107. That the home government might have a more direct 
control over the colonies and thereby secure a stricter enforce- 
ment of the Navigation Laws ; that the union of the colonies 
would insure their united defence against the French and the In- 
dians ; that the ties between the mother country and the colonies 
would be made stronger and the interests of the latter better con- 
served. 

108. Edmund Andros, a favorite of James II, was appointed 
Governor-General of New England. He sought to carry out the 
new policy of English control by dissolving the governments of 
Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut, and extending his 
control over New York and New Jersey. On the revolt against 
his royal master he was imprisoned. 

109. Massachusetts received a new royal charter from William 
and Mary, which was a compromise between the proposed plan 
of royal control and the former liberal self-government. Rhode 
Island and Connecticut resumed their governments under their 
charters. In New York, representative government was estab- 
lished. Maryland became a royal province, to be made a pro- 
prietary colony again in 1715, under the proprietorship of a Prot- 
estant heir. 

110. To secure the rich trade of the Americas in furs, tobaccos, 
and other products which they needed; to escape the religious 
troubles current during the 17th century; the desire to better 



82 American History. 

their financial and social positions, and to seek refuge from the 
hard times in England and in Europe. 

111. There were boundless areas with but a comparatively small 
number of settlers, and land was to be had either free of 
charge or at but little cost. In the New England colonies land 
was given free to all individuals and to groups of settlers. In the 
proprietary colonies, the land was sold at a small cost, land was 
also given free to those who brought settlers to the colonies, 
and in other ways land was often given for a nominal sum or 
annual rental, the title, of course, to vest in the settler. Since 
land could be acquired so easily, it became a very simple thing 
to acquire large estates. Moreover, a number of settlers did not 
have sufficient funds to pay for their passage, and the people who 
did pay their passage money thus secured "head-rights" upon the 
labor of the men so aided. 

112. The physiography of New England very early, as in the 
case of Virginia and other colonies, fixed its occupations and in- 
dustries, and these determined the social and economic conditions. 
The soil was ill-fitted for extensive agriculture; there were hills 
and forests, numerous rivers, and a rugged coast with numer- 
ous indentations and some excellent harbors. There were a few 
fertile valleys. The sea abounded in fish, and the lumber in the 
forests provided the lumber for the boats and vessels. 

The condition of the soil prevented extensive farms. Moreover, 
the stretch of land between the mountains and the French ter- 
ritory and the sea was narrow, and the large population had to 
live compactly. The Puritans also settled in church communities 
and groups, and attendance was rather compulsory. There re- 
sulted a compactness of settlement not found in the other colonies. 

113. Owing to the fertile valleys, agriculture was carried on, 
and grains and vegetables were raised. The forests supplied the 
lumber required for the building of vessels for commerce and 
fishing. The abundance of fish and the nearness to the Grand 
Banks made fishing an important industry. The short streams and 
the plentiful supply of water power gave rise to numerous mills 
and factories. The cloths and clothing were generally made on 
the farms. In the factories in the towns brick, pottery, glass, and 
shoes were manufactured. The forests were the homes of fur- 



American History. SS 

bearing animals and the inhabitants made trapping and hunting 
an important industry. 

114. The predominant feature of New England life was the 
spirit of democracy in political, social, and economic life. Al- 
though there were class distinctions, the lines were not so strong 
that one could not mount higher socially. The old famiUes, the 
official class, the wealthy were naturally looked up to. The ten- 
dency was toward industrial and social equality. 

115. While the Puritans were dominant in politics and in re- 
ligion, yet there was a broad spirit of tolerance abroad. The first 
Anglican Church was founded in 1686, and in Rhode Island were 
found Baptists, Quakers, Jews, Catholics and other religious sects. 
From there they gradually spread to the other New England 
colonies. Attendance at church was regarded as a necessary 
thing, and the laws prescribed a very strict observance of the 
Sabbath. The usual so-called "blue Sunday'' and the rigors of 
the Puritan observance, with its exclusion of the recreations and 
pleasures of life, were dominant features of the religious Ufe. 

116. Considering the fact that many of the first Puritans were 
of the educated type, it is only natural that education was made 
a very prominent feature in the building up of the colonies. Every 
community had its church and its schoolhouse. The mass of the 
people were given a rudimentary education, and higher education 
could be had in preparation for the ministry. Harvard College 
was founded in 1636, and shortly after there were founded other 
schools of advanced standing. 

117. The local town government was the means by which the 
people expressed their views and opinions on political questions. 
Officers were elected at frequent intervals, and were held respon- 
sible to the people. The assemblies were strong champions of 
the rights of the masses, and conserved the popular political 
rights and privileges. By means of their control of the treasury 
and appropriations, they often defeated the purposes of the ar- 
bitrary governors sent over from England. 

118. The soil of the Southern colonies was rich and very 
fertile ; there were broad expanses of land between the forests 
and mountains and the seashore; the numerous rivers were 
deep enough for ocean-going vessels. 

Social life in the Southern colonies was in marked contrast to 



84 American History. 

that of the New England colonies. The tendency here was to- 
ward aristocracy, and the large, extensive plantations with the 
abundance of cheap help fostered this social tendency. More- 
over, the difficulty of communication, the spread of the planta- 
tions and farms, and the absence of any large cities all tended 
to foster this spirit. The difficulty of the small farms competing 
with the large plantations, led to the westward movement of the 
free whites, and only the wealthy and the poor whites and 
negroes remained in the eastern part of these colonies. The 
farm and plantation was a complete community in itself, with 
the planter as lord and master. 

119. The Southern colonies very easily became agricultural 
colonies, and tobacco and corn became the staples after attempts 
had been made at the raising of other vegetable products, as in- 
digo, cotton, etc. The large plantation was a very common thing 
because of the width of the farm belt and the cheapness of 
the land. There were few towns or cities because of the large 
plantations, and the plantations had docks at which the incom- 
ing ships could unload their cargoes and take on fresh cargoes 
for Europe. Negro labor and cheap white labor were to be had 
in abundance. See answers, 60, 67, 69, 118. 

120. In view of the above, the political conditions were some- 
what different from those in the other colonies. The parish, like 
the town, was the home of local self-government, but the planter 
dominated the parish, and the vestrymen had charge of the 
church affairs and the relief of the poor. The county was the 
important unit, because of the sparseness of population. The 
board of justices, known as the County Court, levied taxes, and 
exercised all legislative, judicial and executive functions. The 
sheriff was the most important county officer, having in charge 
the collection of taxes and the expenditure of public funds. The 
members of the County Court were appointed by the Governor 
usually from among the planters, and the vestrymen filled va- 
cancies occurring in that body. 

121. The nature of the country, the sparseness of the popula- 
tion, made attendance at church on Sundays somewhat of a 
hardship, and rendered almost impossible the erection of schools. 
The children of the better classes were taught at home, and were 
then sent to England for the completion of their education. 



American History. 85 

122. Conditions in the Middle colonies were a composite of 
those in the New England and Southern colonies. The people 
were of varied nationalities. While agriculture was the domi- 
nant industry, the presence of many large cities as New York 
and Philadelphia, made it also a commercial and industrial sec- 
tion. Intercolonial and foreign trade stood next in importance 
to agriculture. Commerce was carried on with the Bahamas, 
with the West Indies, and with the New England Colonies, as 
well as with England. The Hudson River formed an important 
means of communication. New York carried on an extensive 
trade in furs with the Indians. 

123. In the main the tendency in social life was toward the 
equality of all classes and stations of life. The large manors on 
the Hudson River could not overcome the equalizing tendency 
of industry and commerce. There were numerous religious sects : 
Dutch Reformed, Lutherans, Congregationalists, Jews, Quakers, 
and Catholics, alike lived in communities at peace with one an- 
other. Religious toleration was a strong feature. Education was 
at an ebb in New York, but Pennsylvania had several good pri- 
vate schools. 

124. As in social and religious life, the governments in the 
Middle Colonies showed the compromising spirit. The demo- 
cratic town system of the New England Colonies, and the aristo- 
cratic county system of the South, the strength of the local self- 
government with the authority of the representative assembly 
were equally divided in these colonies. 

125. European wars, internal disturbances in France, the civil 
wars between the French Catholics and the Huguenots. 

126. After the accession of Henry IV to the throne of France 
and the issue of the Edict of Nantes by which the Huguenots 
were given, with but few exceptions, equal privileges with the 
'French Catholics, came a revival of interest in America, par- 
ticularly as the French had heard favorable reports from the 
Spanish and the English. The French had traded with the 
Indians, and had gone to the fishing banks off Newfoundland. 
The revocation of the Edict of Nantes with its consequent per- 
secution of the Huguenots made the latter desire a safe refuge, 
which they found in the New World. 

127. Champlain had been a soldier in the armies of Henry IV, 



86 American History. 

and found an outlet for his energies in the adventurous Hfe in 
America. He was the geographer of the expedition of De Monts 
in 1604, led several expeditions exploring along the New England 
Coast, explored the St. Lawrence Valley, and took careful notes 
of the geographical features. In 1608 he founded Quebec, and in 
the following year he accompanied an Algonquin expedition to 
the shores of Lake Champlain. In 1615, he ascended the Ottawa 
River, entered Lake Huron, and explored central New York on 
his return. 

128. De Monts was a French courtier to whom had been 
granted, in 1604, the monopoly of the fur trade between the 
parallels of 40 and 46 degrees. He founded Port Royal (An- 
napolis) on the Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia. 

129. (a) The French relations with the Algonquin Indians 
were most intimate. The latter aided the French traders and 
trappers, in return for which the French assisted them in their 
attacks on the Iroquois tribe, thereby gaining the undying hatred 
of the latter. Many of the French intermarried with the Indians, 
and adopted Indian manners and customs. The Indians became 
susceptible to conversion to Christianity as a result of the ac- 
tivities of the French missionaries, (b) The relation between the 
French and the Iroquois, on the other hand, was one of con- 
tinual struggle. For a period of almost three quarters of a cen- 
tury after the attacks of the Algonquins and Champlain and his 
followers, the Iroquois, admirably situated as they were in the 
central part of New York, attacked the St. Lawrence settle- 
ments, and thereby retarded the southern spread of French power. 
When the French and Indian War broke out, the Iroquois aided 
the EngHsh to destroy French power in America. 

130. The desire of the French to secure the rich rewards of the 
fur trade, led to the neglect of their settlements and colonies, 
rendering them an easy prey to the warHke Iroquois and later to 
the English forces. The trade attracted the young men because 
of the free, adventurous life of the courier de bois. 

131. Frontenac was the Governor-General of New France, who 
extended French sway along the great waterways of the St. 
Lawrence and the Mississippi, and even temporarily among the 
Iroquois tribes. 

132. In 1673, Joliet, with Father Marquette, went to explore the 



American History. 87 

Mississippi. They sailed on Green Bay, the Great Lakes, the Fox 
River, the lower Wisconsin, and down the Mississippi, as far 
south as the Arkansas River, from which point they returned. 

133. In 1679, La Salle, a friend of Frontenac, desiring to se- 
cure the valuable trade in buffalo skins and heavy peltries, and 
at the same time, to make sure of the mouth of the Mississippi 
River, which, unlike the St. Lawrence, did not freeze over during 
the winter months, sailed on the waters between the Great Lakes 
and the Mississippi River, explored the country and established 
trading posts, and in 1682 made a successful descent of the Mis- 
sissippi to its mouth, and took possession of the land on both 
banks in the name of Louis, sovereign of France. The territory 
was named Louisiana. 

134. The relations of the French and the English in Europe and 
in America were unfriendly. The rivalry between the two most 
powerful nations in Europe soon spread and made itself felt in 
America. The disputes between the French and the English fish- 
ermen who invaded the fishing regions claimed by the French, 
the question of the boundary of Acadia, and the question of the 
ownership of the Mississippi Valley, the fur trade, and the aid 
given to the Iroquois Indians in their attacks on the French, 
tended to keep alive the bad feeling between the two nations. 

135. The four Intercolonial Wars were: King William's, 
or the War of the Palatinate, 1689-1697; Queen Anne's War, or 
the War of the Spanish Succession, 1701-1713; King George's 
War, or the War of the Austrian Succession, 1744-1748; and the 
French and Indian War, or the Seven Years War, 1756-1763. 

136. King William's War (1689-1697) followed as a result of 
the aid given to the exiled King James II. to regain the English 
throne. The important events in King William's War were: 
the destruction of Lachine and Schenectady, the failure of the 
attacks upon Quebec and Montreal, and the holding of an inter- 
colonial congress at New York in 1690. The Treaty of Ryswick, 
in 1697, terminated the war with no advantages held by one side 
or the other. 

137. Queen Anne's War was caused by the attempt of Louis 
XIV to unite the thrones of France and Spain, and is therefore, 
known as the War of the Spanish Succession. The leading 
events were: the attacks upon the outlying towns in New Eng- 



88 American History. 

land, the capture of Port Royal, Acadia, by the New England 
troops, the retention of Acadia, called Nova Scotia ; the obtaining 
of Newfoundland, and the surrender of the French claims to the 
borders of Hudson Bay. The Treaty of Utrecht, 1713, brought 
the war to a close with territorial gains in the hands of the Eng- 
lish, and marks the beginning of the downfall of French power in 
America. 

138. The third war arose in Europe regarding the succession 
to the Austrian throne, and spread to America. The important 
event was the attack and capture of the fortress of Louisburg, on 
Cape Breton Isle, which was returned at the end of the war. 

139. The causes of the numerous wars between England and 
France, ending finally with the destruction of the power of Na- 
poleon, are numerous. Among them are : the differences in tem- 
perament of the peoples, the differences in religion, the question 
of European politics, England's envy of the increasing power of 
the French, culminating during the reign of Louis XIV, the ques- 
tion of the control of the sea, and the matter of the protection 
of the colonies in the New World. The motives for French 
colonization were the aggrandizement of France, the extension of 
French territory, the valuable fur trade of the West and North- 
west, the refuge of the still persecuted French Huguenots. The 
motives for English colonization can be found in answer 110. 

140. (a) The people of New France differed considerably from 
the English colonists. The population of the New England col- 
onies alone was more than 300,000, while the rest of the colonies 
held more than three-quarters of a million. Compared to this, 
the French had a population of about eighty thousand. The 
French lacked the true colonizing spirit, while the English were,, 
and always have been, the best colonizers in the world. The prin- 
cipal aim of the English was to build homes in the New World, 
while the French were dominated by the spirit of adventure, the 
missionary spirit, and the spirit of financial gain, (b) For the 
industries in the English colonies see answers 112, 113, 118, 119, 
122. The leading industry of New France was the fur trade. The 
agricultural industry was not independent ; the farm was cul- 
tivated by a tenant, who was restricted in his dealings by his 
master, or seigneur. Compare with the earlier days in Virginia. 

141. (a) The advantages of the French in their highly cen- 



American History. ft^ 

tralized government at Quebec, with the strong military forces 
under one command, supported by large numbers of Algonquins, 
were offset by the fact that the English colonies were compact, 
that they had longer staying qualities, that they had the support 
of the fierce Iroquois, and had greater resources in actual people, 
naval power, and wealth,- and the firm support of the mother 
country. The centralized French government, with the large forces 
of soldiers to enforce the ruthority of the French King and his 
Governors, the wandering spirit of the French, the monopolistic 
tendencies of everything connected with the government, certainly 
did not foster a democratic tendency among the settlers. Moreover 
the restrictions placed upon the French Huguenots drove large 
numbers of these to settle in the English colonies. For the spirit 
of English governments see answers 104, HO, \17, 120, 123. 
(b) The government of New France was conducted from Paris 
through Quebec ; it was a long distance government, unacquainted 
with the real needs of the colonies in America. 

142. The causes of the three Intercolonial Wars arose in con- 
nection with European politics, while the causes of the French 
and Indian War had their origin in America. The four wars 
were merely those in a chain of wars between France and Eng- 
land which was closed in 1815, on the termination of the Napo- 
leonic Wars. 

143. The territory between the Appalachian Highlands and the 
Mississippi was claimed by the French because of the explorations 
of the French, the courier de bois, missionaries, and traders, while 
the English were developing their colonies. The principal move- 
ment of the English was southward instead of westward. 

144. The fact that the Appalachian Highlands run north and 
south and not east and west is one of the most valuable of nat- 
ural reasons for the strong development of the spirit of unity 
among the English colonies. There were but few passes in the 
Highlands and these were well guarded by the savage and un- 
friendly Indians. The colonies, therefore, had to develop in the 
rather narrow strip between the mountains and the sea until they 
felt strong enough to pierce the mountain barriers on the west. 
If the mountains had run the other way, east and west, the 
colonies and settlements would have spread out and there would 



^ American History. 

have been magnificent distances between them, just as among the 
settlements of the French in the territory west of the Highlands* 
This accounts for the fact that there had grown up a large num- 
ber of important cities in English territory, while there were very 
few in New France and Canada.. 

145. It was only natural that the English colonies should con- 
tinue to Krow stronger as time went on. Strongly intrenched 
between the Appalachian Highlands on the west, beyond which 
they had slowly, but surely driven the Indians, and the Atlantic 
Ocean, united by the same underlying spirit of all Englishmen, 
dominated by the same high ideals of the Anglo-Saxons, the col- 
onists, especially the second and the third generations, came to 
look upon the American colonies as their home. The colonies 
were knitted together by the same ties and ideals, by their posi- 
tion, and were not loosely strung out as were the French col- 
onies. 

146. The Ohio Company, composed of prominent Virginians, 
was organized in 1748. It had obtained a grant of land west of 
the mountains for the purpose of colonization and the trade in 
furs and pelts. Their aims were opposed by the French who had 
laid claim to all the territory west of the mountains. The most 
vital point of contact was the upper Ohio Valley, and here the 
French had built a chain of forts. This action led Governor Din- 
widdle of Virginia to send Washington to the Fr'inch Governor 
with a note of warning that the French were encroaching on Eng- 
lish territory. The note was disregarded and the French built 
Fort DuQuesne at the junction of the Allegheny and Mononga- 
hela Rivers. In the following year (July, 1754), a small force un- 
der Washington was defeated at Fort Necessity, and the Eng- 
lish had to retire to Virginia. 

147. In the same year, 1754, the New England Colonies, New 
York, Pennsylvania and Maryland, sent delegates to a Congress 
at Albany, for the purpose of drawing up plans for an offensive 
and defensive union. The treaty with the Iroquois was renewed, 
and a Plan of Union was drawn up which provided for the fol- 
lowing: A President-General was to be appointed by the King 
of England, a Council consisting of representatives from all the 
Colonies was to be formed for legislative purposes. The plan 
failed because of the objection to the appointment of the execu- 



American History. 91 

tive by the Crown of England, and the English vetoed the selec- 
tion of the Council by the local assemblies. 

14S. The direct and immediate cause of the War was the ques- 
tion of the territory west of the Allegheny Mountains, claimed 
by Virginia and under the domination of the French. But the 
real, underlying causes of the French and Indian War, as well as 
of the preceding wars, are found in the answer to 139. 

149. The four points of attack by the English upon the hold 
of the French upon the territory west of the mountains were: 
Fort DuQuesne, because, situated at the junction of the Al- 
legheny, the Monongahela and Ohio Rivers, it controlled the 
Ohio Valley and the gateway to Pennsylvania and the other col- 
onies from the West; Fort Niagara, because it controlled the 
Great Lake region; Lakes George and Champlain, because they 
controlled the entrance into Canada; and Louisburg and Quebec, 
because they controlled the Gulf and River of St. Lawrence, were 
the key to Canada, and menaced the New England Coast. 

150. The first two years of the war, the years 1756-1757, were 
years of defeat for the English. With the accession of William 
Pitt to the position of Prime Minister, the war was waged with 
redoubled vigor, and soon the objective points of the English 
plans, one after the other, fell into the hands of the English. 
With the capture of Quebec, the last of the French strongholds 
in America, the French power in America was utterly destroyed, 
and France lost all her extensive possessions in America. 

151. The Treaty of Paris, signed 1763, provided : England 
returned to France some of her West Indian possessions which 
had been captured ; the French territory east of the Mississippi 
was ceded to England; the territory west of the Mississippi was 
ceded to Spain for her aid to France ; and England received 
Florida in exchange for the Philippines and for Cuba, which had 
been captured from Spain by the English. 

152. The results of the war upon France were disastrous, 
since she lost all her territorial possessions in North America. 
Upon the English colonists, they were of untold importance. 
The colonists had learned the valuable lesson of strength in 
union ; they had learned the lesson of self-dependence ; they had 
learned that they were the equals of the splendidly trained 
troops of the European nations ; it gave them a military training 



^ , American History. 

that was invaluable as preparation for the war for American 
independence ; it provided them with territory for their west- 
ward expansion ; and with the removal of the French from their 
western borders, they had no need for English protection. 

153. During the first fifty years of the eighteenth century the 
population of the English colonies had grown from about 300,000 
to more than 1,500,000. The natural increase was very large 
and this was further aided by the large immigration from all 
European countries. The religious persecutions of the French 
induced large numbers of Huguenots to migrate to the English 
colonies ; the attractions of Pennsylvania, free land, free thought, 
and freedom of religious worship, brought, enormous numbers 
of Germans to that colony, besides hosts of others to New York 
and the Carolinas ; the hardy, thrifty Scotch-Irish in northern 
Ireland found conditions burdensome there, and the English 
colonies soon received large numbers of them. In addition to 
these, smaller numbers of Swiss, Welsh, Scotch and Irish came 
to the various colonies. Servants, indentured servants, tenants, 
and convicts were received. These peoples settled the border- 
lands and became pioneers in the westward movements. Thus 
did America early in the eighteenth century become the "melting 
pot" for the various nationalities of Europe. This was one of 
the fundamental reasons for the strong growth of liberality in 
politics, in religion, and in thought that brought us to the Ameri- 
can Revolution. All classes and conditions, all religions, all 
nationalities "rubbed shoulders," saw the good in one another, 
and joined to make the tendency toward freedom all the stronger. 

154. The Middle Colonies took on more and more an indus- 
trial lead. Their products likewise became more varied. Coarse 
woolen stuffs were made at home and were worked into clothing 
on the farms. Linen was manufactured. Ironware, pottery, 
hats, rope, furniture and shoes became important articles of com- 
merce, though they were made in crude form and on a small 
scale due to the restrictive acts of England. 

In the New England colonies, the industries mentioned pre- 
viously continued apace, and the New England vessels, manned 
by New Englanders were found on all the "seven seas." 

After the wars between the French and the English the ship- 
ping, the whaling, and the fishing industries made remarkable 



American History. 93 

strides, and the New England-built vessel was seen everywhere 
on the ocean. 

155. See answers 118, 119. Agriculture in the South became 
more systematic ; larger and more varied crops were produced ; 
rice, indigo, cotton, naval stores, lumber were added to the list 
of agricultural products, raised for home and foreign consump- 
tion. The large plantation continued to rule in Virginia and 
South Carolina, while the small farm was predominant in the 
other colonies. Tobacco and corn still were the leading farm 
products. Horses and cattle were raised in large numbers. 

156. Since England afforded but a small market for the large 
and varied products of the colonies and in spite of the restrictive 
Navigation laws, a great deal of commerce was carried on with 
the other European countries. Lumber, fish, horses, meat, staves, 
tobacco, and other articles formed the items of export to the 
countries of Spain and the West Indies, from which countries 
and her colonies came the imports of coffee, wine, silks, drugs, 
molasses and sugar. These latter were manufactured into the 
famous New England rums. 

157. The slave trade was carried on during the 18th cen- 
tury with but little opposition. The slaves were bought in ex- 
change for the products that the ships usually carried : cloths, 
rum, trinkets, and firearms. A large cargo of slaves, many of 
whom died during the voyage because of the unsanitary condi- 
tions in the boats, could be secured in exchange for but a small 
cargo of the articles mentioned above. The slaves were used 
mainly on the plantations in the southern colonies in all sorts 
of menial labor, but were also used as servants in the Middle 
Colonies. Very few of them were found profitable in the New 
England colonies, and consequently the number of slaves in 
the North was very small. 

158. With the broadening of life due to peaceable and easy 
economic conditions, and the increase in wealth, the rigors of the 
Church fell off, and the Church (even in New England) no 
longer prescribed minutely the daily conduct and dress of the 
colonists. The professions of law and medicine became of greater 
importance. In educational matters, the common school educa- 
tion remained practically stationary, but higher education grew 
apace. Yale was founded in 1701; Princeton in 1746; King's 



94 American History. 

(now Columbia) in 1754; the University of Pennsylvania In 
1755; Brown in 1764. The Boston News Letter, founded in 
1704, was the forerunner of a large number of journals that sup- 
plied information and news to the colonists. 

159. The Governor was appointed by the Crown or chosen 
by popular vote, and his powers and duties were set forth in the 
charter. The council (except in Pennsylvania) was the upper 
house of the legislature, had judicial functions of appeal, and 
aided in the administration of the laws. The council included 
generally the strongest supporters of the governor in his oppo- 
sition to the encroachment of popular rights on the authority of 

the crown or the proprietor. See answer 104. 

The mingling of the various nationalities and classes of society 
quickly brought to the surface the spirit of independence and 
opposition to the arbitrary rule of the crown appointees. The 
opposition to the Governor and the Council was led by the assem- 
blies. The vote of the assemblies in all matters of legislation 
was subject to approval or dissent of the council, to veto by the 
governor, or the final veto of the crown. It became the custom 
to originate all financial measures in the assembly, as a result of 
this opposition to arbitrary measures. 

160. The struggles between the representative assemblies and 
the governors arose over questions involving the members of their 
own houses without the intervention of the governors; on the. 
question of making the officers paid by the colonies responsible 
to them for their conduct in office, by voting them annual grants 
instead of permanent salaries ; by insisting that all financial bills 
originate in the lower house. The disputes were almost uni- 
formly settled in favor of the popular representatives'. 

THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

161. The "mercantile system," prominent in the history of the 
French colonies, emphasized the theory that the colonies existed 
solely for the benefit of the mother country, that they were to be 
protected only insofar as they contributed to the support of the 
home country, and that their interests were entirely subordinate 
to the interests of the parent state. A study of the Navigation 
and Trade and Manufacture Laws shows how completely this 
theory underlay these acts. 



American History. 95 

162. (a) In order further to protect British manufactures and 
the sources of royal revenue, and to curb the independent spirit 
of the colonists, Parliament passed the following laws : Colonial 
trade in wool and woolen goods was prohibited. In 1732, the 
manufacture of hats was forbidden; in 1750, iron wares. The 
list of articles that were to be exported only to England was 
increased to include rice and naval stores. High duties were im- 
posed on the importation of sugar and molasses from the Spanish 
and French West Indies in order to encourage the production of 
sugar in the British West Indies. It is needless to say that these 
laws were honored more in the breach than in the observance, 
and that considerable illicit trade was carried on ; smuggling 
became a common thing. (b) The beneficial features were 
seen in the impetus given to shipbuilding in the New Eng- 
land colonies, and to the bounties paid for the export of certain 
commodities to England, as indigo, dye-woods, and naval stores, 
(c) The Navigation Laws were consistently disobeyed, and 
smuggling was carried on with the European countries, with the 
West Indies, and with the Mediterranean ports. The cost of 
enforcing the revenue system in the colonies was considerably 
more than the amount of revenue received from their enforce- 
ment. Goods were exported to these countries and their products 
were smuggled into the colonies with little difficulty. 

163. In 1696, the Board of Trade was organized, comprising 
the members of the Privy Council and prominent men interested 
in commercial matters, and became the central body for the ad- 
ministration of colonial affairs. While its powers were advisory, 
its influence reached the King and the Parliament. Instructions 
were sent to the governors, and attempts were made to secure a 
better enforcement of the Navigation Laws. Admiralty courts, 
without juries, were established in the colonies, and these 
aroused the bitter opposition of the colonists. 

164. The "Writs of Assistance" were search warrants which 
were of a general nature rather than special warrants. These 
were issued in cases of smuggling, and were strongly resisted by 
the colonists. They were directed to any officer to enter and 
search any place, and to seize any goods, upon the faintest sus- 
picion. They were argued against by James Otis, representing] 



% American Historv. 

the merchants, but were declared legal by the Massachusetts 
Courts. 

165. In 1763, Grenville became Prime Minister, and he decided 
to increase the control of England over the colonies by the en- 
forcement of the Navigation Laws, the placing of a standing army 
in the colonies, and its support, in part, by the colonies by a 
colonial tax. This was known as "the New Policy." The reason 
for the enforcement of these laws was found partly in the 
enormous burden of the debt incurred as a result of the French 
and Indian Wars and by the dangers that threatened from the 
attacks made by the Indians, as in Pontiac's Conspiracy, and by 
the Creeks in Georgia and the Carolinas. 

166, The Sugar Act of 1764 was designed to raise revenues 
by means of high duties. The profitable trade with the West 
Indies in sugar, molasses and dried fish from the New England 
colonies was threatened, and a storm of protests arose from these 
New England merchants. 

167 (a) In 1765, Grenville, after a meeting with the colonial 
agents in London, proposed to raise the revenue required to 
support ten thousand troops in the colonies by means of a stamp 
tax. This law made it obligatory to stamp all legal instru- 
ments, documents, newspapers, commercial papers, and almanacs. 
The money so raised was to be used only in connection with the 
defence of the colonies, (b) The colonies were united in their 
opposition. Realizing the facts that their rights were threatened, 
even though the money so raised was to be expended wholly 
within the colonies, they nevertheless claimed that the sole right 
of taxation, as Englishmen, vested in their colonial assemblies, 
and that since they were not represented in the English Parlia- 
ment, Parliament had no right to pass any measures of taxation 
over them. 

168. Agreements were entered into not to deal with British 
merchants, to buy or handle British goods, and to pay no debts 
until the Stamp Act was repealed. Resolutions of opposition 
were passed. Organizations to oppose the measure were formed. 
Riots occurred, and the stamps in several of the colonies were 
publicly burned or otherwise destroyed. 

169. In 1765, at the instance of Massachusetts, delegates from 
nine of the colonies met at New York. The Congress decided 



American History. 97 

upon a Declaration of Rights, and address to the King and 
both Houses of Parliament, and a firm adherence to the principle 
of "no taxation without representation." This Congress, the 
first general one that met, was a moulder of public opinion and 
an example of what union among the colonies could accomplish. 

170. The protests of the British merchants who claimed that 
their commerce was being destroyed and the opposition of the 
colonies, brought about a repeal of the Stamp Act in the follow- 
ing year, 1766. 

171. The right of the Parliament to lay such taxes as were 
opposed by the colonists rested on the doctrine stated by Lord 
Mansfield : "A member of Parliament, chosen from any borough, 
represents, not only the constituents and inhabitants of that 
particular place, but ... all the other commons of the land, and 
the inhabitants of all the colonies and dominions of Great 
Britain." 

The position of the colonies was stated by Franklin in the 
following: "The authority of Parliament was allowed to be 
valid in all laws, except such as should lay internal taxes," and 
by internal taxes he meant such a tax as the "stamp tax." The 
taxes imposed on commerce were regarded as perfectly within 
the right of Parliament to impose. "It was never disputed in 
laying duties to regulate commerce." 

172. Accompanying the repeal of the Stamp Act was the De- 
claratory Act, which proclaimed the right of Great Britain to 
make all laws for the colonies and to bind them in all cases 
whatsoever. 

173. (a) The new ministry that followed was under the lead- 
ership of William Pitt, Earl of Chatham, who, unfortunately, 
was taken sick and was unable to lead in Parhament. The 
colonial policy was then dictated by Charles Townshend, Chan- 
cellor of the Exchequer, who proposed the following measures 
in 1767: To raise revenues by means of a duty to be placed on 
paper, tea, glass, lead, painters' colors imported into the colonies ; 
the payment of the revenue officers and the salaries of the judges 
of the courts from the funds raised by the imposition of these 
duties ; to secure the enforcement of the navigation, commerce, 
and trade laws, admiralty courts were to be established without 
juries, and these were passed. Because these measures tended 



98 American History. 

to raise revenue and not to control commerce, the colonists re- 
sisted them very bitterly, (b) The opposition to these measures 
was spontaneous. The colonists claimed that they violated the 
spirit of the English constitution in that, like the Stamp Act, they 
sought to lay an internal tax, and not an external tax. The colo- 
nists agreed not to import any goods from England, and also not 
to use any English-made goods (the non-importation and non- 
consumption agreements of 1765-1766). Opposition was voiced in 
letters, newspapers, and petitions, as the Farmers' Letters of John 
Dickinson of Pennsylvania, the petitions of Samuel Adams, and 
the Circular Letters addressed to the other colonies by the Gen- 
eral Court of Massachusetts. 

174. The Boston Massacre of 1770 resulted from a clash be- 
tween the mobs of Boston and the soldiers stationed there. Five 
citizens were killed and the soldiers put on trial, but at the urgent 
solicitation of Samuel Adams and others, they were set free, and 
all the soldiers stationed in Boston were removed to an island 
in the harbor. 

175. There were in England what were called the "rotten 
boroughs," that is, boroughs with small population, laid out many 
hundred years ago by the King and were represented in Parlia- 
ment by members in exactly the same manner as any of the more 
populous cities were. Moreover, there were many cities and 
towns which had sprung up since these unpopulated boroughs 
were laid out which had no representation at all. These rotten 
boroughs were generally controlled by some nobleman or some 
man who sought favors from King George. The King of Eng- 
land determined to be the ruler in fact as well as in name, and 
by means of bribery of money, position, or elevation to the peer- 
age, he easily controlled a majority of the votes in the Houses 
of Parliament and measures were readily passed at his bidding. 

176. George HI now proceeded to overrule the will of the 
colonies in many particulars, by means of what were known as 
"royal instructions." The effect of many of these was to re- 
move the capitals to other towns, to disregard the laws of the 
colonies, to demand high fees that were in effect taxes, and to 
negative, in every way, the will of the colonies. 

177. At the suggestion of Samuel Adams, the Boston 'Town 
Meeting" adopted a resolution urging the organization of "Com- 



American History. 99 

mittees of Correspondence" whose duty it was to keep the other 
settlements and towns in Massachusetts informed of events. 
This was after the Massachusetts General Court had been re- 
moved from Boston and its sittings interfered with. The idea 
was taken up by other colonies and soon the Committees of Cor- 
respondence were the only means of keeping one another ad- 
vised of the various steps taken to resist the impositions of Par- 
liament and the King. 

178. The tax on imports was repealed in 1770, with the ex- 
ception of that on tea. The tea was smuggled into the colonies 
in order to avoid payment of the duty which they considered 
unjust. In 1773, the King determined to enforce the payment 
of this duty, and the British East India Company was allowed 
to export tea to the colonies, the cost of the tea, in order to 
induce colonists to purchase it, being much cheaper than that 
paid for before. The colonists refused to permit the tea to be 
landed, and in Boston a number of citizens disguised as Indians 
broke open and dumped the chests of tea into the harbor in order 
to make sure that none of it would be landed. 

179. As punishment for this act of the Boston Tea Party, 
ParHament, at the King's order, passed the following retaliatory 
acts : That the Port of Boston be closed until the full amount 
of the tea be paid for. That the powers of the royal governor 
be extended and the powers of the Massachusetts legislature be 
restricted. That officials killing persons in the performance of 
their duties be transported for trial to England. That the offi- 
cials be permitted to quarter soldiers in any vacant buildings. 

180. The Quebec Act extended the boundaries of the Province 
of Quebec so as to include the territory between the Great Lakes 
and the Ohio River, territory claimed by Virginia and other 
colonies. The object of the bill was to establish a government 
for the territory and to provide for religious toleration, since the 
French in the Province of Quebec were largely Catholic. 

181. These retaliatory acts stimulated the desire for united 
action on the part of the colonies. Accordingly, the Massachu- 
setts Assembly suggested that a meeting of the delegates from 
the various colonies be held at Philadelphia on September 1, 
1774. All the colonies except Georgia were represented. Their 
deliberations resulted in the following: Resolutions of sym- 



100 American History. 

pathy for Boston were passed. A petition was drafted to be 
presented to the King, asking for a redress of the grievances 
and declaring absolute loyalty to the sovereign. Addresses to 
the people of England and of Canada were adopted. A general 
boycott of English goods and those using English goods, was 
ordered. Local committees of safety and of correspondence, were 
suggested and these assumed governmental authority. 

182. The outbreak of the war was at Lexington and Concord. 
The militia had been fully organized in Massachusetts, "minute 
men," citizens ready for instant mobilization, were on the look- 
out, and stores had been accumulated. The efforts of General 
Gage, located at Boston, to seize the stores hidden at Lexington 
and Concord of which he had received reports led to the de- 
termined opposition of the patriots to any further advances on 
the part of the British soldiers. More than fifteen thousand 
soldiers marched to Boston from the neighboring colonies, and 
the siege of the British in Boston began. 

183. On June 15, the Americans behind their fortifications on 
Breed's (Bunker) Hill, were attacked by the British forces and 
suffered defeat at their hands. But the British lost so heavily, 
and the gains were so little, that the Continental troops were 
most encouraged at this evidence of their ability to fight the 
trained English soldiers. 

184. At the suggestion of the First Continental Congress, held 
in Philadelphia, 1774, the Second Continental Congress met in 
the same city on May 10, 1775, and practically legislated for the 
Thirteen Colonies during the entire period of the war. The 
Congress took definite steps to organize the opposition to Great 
Britain and appointed George Washington as Commander-in- 
Chief of the Continental Army around Boston. Forces were 
organized in the other colonies. Money was voted to make pur- 
chases and pay for necessary expenses. 

185. The condition of the American soldiers required the 
attention of Washington. They were disorganized, their arms 
were a varied lot, and their supplies insufficient. Washington 
spent the next few months in converting the raw, undisciplined 
mass with its poor equipment into an army that would be the 
equal of the splendidly trained British forces. 

186. (a) The opposition to the King's government was, at 



American History, 101 

the beginning of the war, not to secure independence, but to 
maintain the rights to which they were entitled as Englishmen, 
(b) When the contemptuous attitude of the King and his min- 
isters, and his policy of hiring foreign soldiers for the "war in 
America, showed the people that reconciliation was impossible, the 
conservatives among the patriots, as well as the radicals, saw then 
that the only recourse was to declare their independence from 
England. The royal governors were driven out and the assem- 
blies assumed full governmental control. In May, 1776, the 
Congress advised each colony to adopt its own republican form 
of government, (c) The fundamental causes of the desire for in- 
dependence of the colonies were: The insistence of the Anglo- 
Saxon for self-government ; the realization that the mother coun- 
try could not appreciate the needs and requirements of the colo- 
nies ; the growth of the spirit of independence ; the mingling of the 
various nationalities; the attempt of the British government to ex- 
ercise too detailed a control over the colonies ; the stubbornness of 
George III ; and the recognition among the colonists that they 
had interests differing from those of the mother country. 

187. By a remote or indirect cause is meant a cause having 
its origin a long time previous to the war; while the direct or 
immediate causes follow as a result of the French and Indian 
War. (a) General causes: The spirit of freedom among the 
colonists; the autocratic rule of the mother-country, (b) Re- 
mote causes : The Navigation Laws ; the Trade and Manufac- 
ture Laws; the Writs of Assistance, (c) Immediate or Direct 
causes: Taxation without representation; Writs of Assistance; 
Stamp Act; Townshend Act; Mutiny Act; Quebec Act; Boston 
Massacre, and Boston Port Bill. 

188. (a) On June 7th, 1776, Richard Henry Lee, seconded by 
John Adams, moved the adoption of the resolution that "These 
United States are and of right ought to be, free and independent 
States." On June 11th, a committee, composed of Thomas Jeffer- 
son, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, John Adams, and 
Robert Livingston, were appointed a committee to draw up a 
Declaration of Independence. The Declaration was reported on 
June 28th, and adopted on July 4th. The opposition to the adop- 
tion of the Declaration was led by John Dickinson, though his 
name appears among its signers. It is to be noted further, that 



102 



American History. 



Parliament, considered the tool of the King, is entirely ignored 
by the Americans in their Declaration, (b) On the advice of 
the Congress, the States organized their own governments. Rhode 
Island and Connecticut used their charters as their constitutions, 
while all the other States adopted new constitutions to meet the 
changed conditions. 

189. The Tories were those who favored the contentions of 
England; they were loyal to the mother country. They con- 
sisted of the office holders, the clergy of the Church of England, 
the large land owners, the wealthy merchants, and the profes- 
sional classes. In the South they were almost equal in number 
to the Whigs who opposed the government of England and had 
declared their independence of the mother country, while in the 
North they were very few in number and suffered confiscation 
of their property and the loss of all political and legal rights. 
Where they were almost equal in number there was civil war. 

190. (a) New England Confederation (1643) ; (b) First Colon- 
ial Congress, Albany Plan of Union (1754) ; (c) Stamp Act 
Congress (1765) ; (d) Committees of Correspondence (1772) ; 
(e) First Continental Congress (1774) ; (f) Second Continental 
Congress (1775-1781); (g) Articles of Confederation (1781- 
1789) ; (h) Ordinance of 1787. 

191. Principal Battles of the Revolutionary War with Com- 
manders : 



1775. 




American 


English 


April 19 


Lexington 






May 10 


Ft. Ticonderoga 






June 17 


Bunker Hill 


Prescott 


General Howe 


Dec. 31 


Quebec 


Montgomery 


Carleton 


\n6 








March 17 


Boston 


Washington 


General Howe 


June 28 


Fort Moultrie 


Moultrie 


Parker 


Aug. 27 


Lon^ Island 


Putnam 


General Howe 


Dec. 26 


Trenton 


Washington 


Rahl 


1777 








Jan. 3 


Princeton 


Washington 




Sept. 11 


Brandywine 


Washington 


General Howe 


Oct. 4 


Germantown 


Washington 


General Howe 


Oct. 11 
1778 
Tune 28 


Saratoga 


Gates 


Burgoyne 


Monmouth 


Washington 


Clinton 


1779 








July 15 


Stony Point 


Wayne 


'Johnson 
.^revost 


Oct. 9 


Savannah 


Lincoln 


1780 








May 12 


Charleston 


Lincoln 


Clinton 


Aug. 16 


Camden 


Gates 


Cornwallis 


1781 








Jan. 17 


Cowpens 


IMorgan 


Tarleton 


Mar. 15 


Guilford Ct. House 


Greene 


Cornwallis 


Oct, 19 


Yorktown 


Washington 


Cornwallis 



American History. 103 

192. With the appointment of Washington to the command of 
the American army, there followed a period of drilling and 
organization until the troops were fit to fight the trained British 
soldiery. At the urgent request of the Massachusetts patriots, 
Washington, under the cover of a furious bombardment along the 
entire line, marched two thousand troops to Dorchester Heights, 
dominating Boston, and its harbor. On March 17, 1776, the 
British, finding themselves outgeneraled, withdrew to Halifax. 

193. The position of New York and the importance of New 
York City as a port and commercial city appealed to the British 
as a means of breaking the United States in two, and then after 
controlling the State of New York through the Hudson River 
and the Mohawk Valley, to turn their attention to the New 
England States, and conquer them, thus narrowing the field of 
operations. Accordingly, the British forces under the command 
of General Howe supported by Admiral Lord Howe, captured 
Long Island and New York after the defeat of the Americans 
under Washington in the Battles of Long Island and White 
Plains. 

194. (a) The year 1777 saw a renewed effort made to divide 
the Thirteen States and to assure the safety of Canada by 
capturing the waterways leading to that country. General Bur- 
goyne led an army from Canada, his destination being Albany, 
where Howe was to meet him after he had captured the Hudson 
Valley. General St. Leger was to advance by way of the Mo- 
hawk Valley. This failed, partly because of the lack of precise 
orders to Howe and the fact that Washington foresaw the at- 
tempt of the British and drew off part of the British army by his 
retreat through Ne\v Jersey. Burgoyne's force of English was sup- 
ported by Canadians and Indians. Ticonderoga, Fort Edward, 
Crown Point, all fell before him. But the Americans adopted 
tactics that delayed the British and denuded the country of pro- 
visions, while at the same time attacking the garrisons left by 
Burgoyne to secure his line of retreat and his communications 
with Canada, (b) Benedict Arnold defeated the attempt of the 
British under St. Leger. The attempt of Burgoyne to capture 
Vermont met with failure in his defeat at Bennington, August, 
1777. The British forces under Burgoyne advanced across the 
Hudson and marched southward. The British were delayed at 



104 American History. 

Saratoga for want of supplies, etc. The American force, now 
much larger than that of the enemy, surrounded the British, and 
compelled their surrender in October, 1777. The American leaders 
prominent in these operations were Generals Schuyler, Gates, 
Benedict Arnold and Kosciusko, the Polish patriot. The surrender 
of Burgoyne's army was the "turning point" of the war, because of 
its effects on the outcome of the struggle. 

195. Washington's retreat with the remnants of his army 
through New Jersey was recognized as a masterpiece of the 
Fabian policy. Newark, New Brunswick, Princeton, and other 
important centers were abandoned, and New Jersey was lost by 
the Americans. The only American victory was the capture of 
Trenton, on Christmas night, 1776, in which more than one 
thousand Hessian troops were captured. Part of the British 
forces near Princeton were defeated by Washington, and the 
Americans retired to Morristown Heights for the winter. 

196. The condition of the army under Washington was truly 
weak. The mismanagement of the commissary department, the 
inefficiency of the officers appointed by Congress, the lack of 
sufficient funds, food, clothing, and equipment, the lack of proper 
officers, and the scheming of certain subordinate officers of 
Washington with friends in Congress, were undermining the 
cause of the Americans. Washington, however, had secured in- 
valuable aid in the persons of Lafayette and De Kalb and Baron 
Steuben from Prussia, all with records as splendid organizers and 
army men. 

197. Philadelphia, being the capital of the United States, was 
the next objective of the British. In July, 1777, while Bur- 
goyne was marching southward in expectation of meeting the 
forces of Howe at Albany, Howe embarked his forces and set 
sail for Chesapeake Bay, where he landed a month later. Wash- 
ington's forces hastened to the rescue of Philadelphia, but were 
defeated at Brandywine and Germantown, and Philadelphia fell 
before the British. The Americans encamped for the winter 
months at Valley Forge. Congress withdrew to Lancaster, and 
later to York, Pennsylvania. 

198. Recognizing England as a virtual enemy, though nomi- 
nally at peace with that country, France aided the cause of the 
United States by loans, purchases of clothing and equipment, and 



American History. 105 

after the capture of Burgoyne's army, a treaty of alliance was 
negotiated with France through the efforts of Benjamin Frank- 
lin, in France, by which that country promised to aid the Ameri- 
cans with an army, naval forces, and equipment. The offers of 
the British to arbitrate the causes of dispute were rejected by the 
Americans. 

199. There were a larger number of adherents of the cause 
of Great Britain in the Southern colonies than there were in 
the colonies in the North. The leaders of the opposition to the 
tyranny of Great Britain were found principally in the com- 
mercial, industrial, and maritime colonies in the North, whom the 
restrictive laws of Great Britain affected more than they did the 
Southern planters. The main military forces were recruited from 
among the colonists in the Middle and New England Colonies. 
The first battles fought were in Massachusetts, and because of the 
nearness of Canada to the Thirteen Colonies, it formed the base 
of .supplies for the invading British armies. 

200. At the beginning of the war privateers were commissioned 
to prey upon the British marine. A navy had been ordered and 
this was put under the command of Captain Barry and Captain 
John Paul Jones. The work of John Paul Jones was notably 
remarkable, for he attacked British vessels in their home waters. 
His fleet was fitted out in French waters, and he made many 
successful attacks upon British merchantmen and war vessels 
convoying merchantmen and transports. 

201. After the British failed in the New England States, the 
British commander, Sir Henry Clinton, appeared with a fleet 
before Charleston, S. C, in order to aid the Tories who were 
hard beset by the patriots. The fleet's attack on Fort Moultrie 
was beaten off, and no attempt was made for more than two 
years to gain a foothold in the South. Realizing the fact that 
there was greater support for the cause of the British in the 
South, which had still very large numbers of Tories, the British 
then determined upon a conquest of the South. Charleston, S. C, 
was captured in May, 1780, the forces under Gates were defeated 
at Camden, and the British ruled South Carolina. 

The British, however, suffered a check because of the activities 
of the independent partisan leaders, Marion, Sumter, Fox, and 
others under Greene, who attacked the outposts of the British 



106 American History. 

forces under Cornwallis, the ablest of the British generals, and 
ambushed small forces in the swampy regions of the southern 
States. General Morgan with his backwoodsmen defeated the 
British at King's Mountain and Cowpens, and Cornwallis was 
compelled to follow Greene across the country and back again. 
The British forces then withdrew to Wilmington, and with the 
exception of Charleston, the South was again in the hands of the 
Americans. 

202. Cornwallis then withdrew to Virginia where a small 
American force under the command of Lafayette successfully 
resisted the efforts of the British, who then made their quarters 
on the Yorktown Peninsula. A French fleet was stationed at the 
West Indies, planning with Washington where the English might 
most advantageously be attacked. On Aug. 14, word was re- 
ceived by Washington that the French fleet under De Grasse was 
headed for Chesapeake Bay, and Washington determined to meet 
him. Skilfully deceiving, the British with the impression that he 
was going to attack New York, he hurriedly combined with the 
French forces and marched through New Jersey and Pennsyl- 
vania to the Chesapeake Bay. The armies joined, and Yorktown 
was invested on land by the combined American and French 
forces, and on sea by the powerful fieet of De Grasse. Corn- 
wallis, after he had been severely attacked and many of his posi- 
tions carried, surrendered his forces on Oct. 19. 

203. While the treaty of alliance with France provided that 
neither country should sign a separate treaty with England, the 
American commissioners secretly negotiated a treaty because 
they feared that the Spanish would join with the French and 
insist that the United States be limited by the Appalachian 
Mountains. The treaty however, was not signed until the ter- 
mination of the European War, in 1783. 

204. The reasons for the defeat of the English may be summed 
up as follows : The war was between Englishmen and English- 
men ; the war was carried on three thousand miles away from 
the English base of supplies, in the New World ; the English had 
aroused the enmity of the leading nations in Europe, many of 
whom aided the Americans with loans, supplies, soldiers and 
ships; the opposition to the King and his Ministry; the realiza- 
tion of the middle class English that the American Revolution 



American History. t07 

was a war for the maintenance of the fightS of Englishmen as 
against the attempts on the part of the sovereign to impose his 
will on the representatives of the people. The ministry of Lord 
North resigned in March, 1782. 

205. The financial difficulties of the country prevented the 
proper feeding and equipping of the Continental armies. Con- 
gress could not secure funds. Loans were received from Spain, 
Holland and France. A lottery had proved a failure. It was 
mainly due to the efforts of that patriotic financier, Robert Mor- 
ris, who pledged his entire fortune, that Congress was able to 
equip the armies. 

206. After the adoption of the Declaration of Independence a 
committee was appointed to draw up a form of government for 
the Independent States. This was the Articles of Confedera- 
tion, adopted by the Congress, in November, 1777, and referred 
by it to the States for ratification. This was done by the States 
finally in 1781. The Articles of Confederation provided that the 
central authority be vested in a Congress of delegates appointed 
annually by and responsible to the State legislatures. Not less 
than two, nor more than seven, were to be appointed from the 
States according to size and importance, but each State was to 
be entitled to only one vote, determined by the majority vote of 
its delegates. The exclusive rights and powers of the Congress 
were limited to those of making war and peace, with no authority, 
however, to enforce its commands on the States. 

207. The weaknesses and defects of this form of government 
were apparent as soon as the government got into actual work- 
ing order. There was no separate executive authority; there was 
no confederated judiciary to interpret the laws, there was no 
power to enforce the mandates of the Congress ; the power of 
taxation was vested in the Congress, but the power to levy and 
collect resided in the individual States, and the States could not 
be coerced ; nothing was final until the votes of nine States could 
be had, an almost impossible number in most matters of impor- 
tance; disputes between States as to lands, commerce, etc., were 
not settled by any common tribunal and served to threaten the 
disruption of the union. 

208. (a) The Articles of Confederation were reported to the 
Second Continental Congress by a Committee, were debated again 



108 American History. 

and again, and finally adopted in 1777; the last State to ratify 
them was Maryland, in 1781. For the reasons for the delay, see 
answers that follow, (b) Among the causes for the delay in the 
ratification of the Articles of Confederation were the claims to the 
Western Lands, lying between Virginia, the Appalachian High- 
lands and the Great Lakes. Virginia, Connecticut, New York, 
Massachusetts, and others claimed the whole or parts of this ter- 
ritory, which had been gained as a result of the French and Indian 
War, by virtue of certain indefinite provisions in their original 
grants. Since this land was gained as a result of war in which 
all the colonies had taken part, it was national territory, was the 
claim set forth by the other States. Maryland refused to ratify 
the Articles of Confederation until the matter was disposed of. 

209. At the suggestion of the Congress, the States surrendered 
their claims to the land, and this became the National Domain, 
various parts of which were called the Northwest Territory, the 
Western Reserve and the Reserved Land for Soldiers. 

210. In 1784, the report of Thomas Jefferson providing for the 
organization of the National Domain, the land surrendered by the 
States (see Answer 211), was adopted. This was the Ordinance 
of 1784. 

211. In 1786, the "Ohio Company of Associates" was organ- 
ized in the interests of the Revolutionary soldiers who desired 
to settle in the West. In July of the following year, through their 
efforts, while a Committee of Congress was considering the form 
of government for the Northwest Territory, the Ordinance of 
1787 was passed after it had received the votes of the eight 
States then represented in Congress, and became a law July 13, 
1787. 

212. It provided for the territorial form of government that 
has been found so practicable; it provided for free education, 
the establishment of schools and colleges, the prohibition of 
slavery, and prohibited social, financial or religious restrictions 
on citizens and the inheritance of estates according to the law of 
primogeniture. 

213. Following the war, treaties were signed with Holland, 
France, Sweden, and Prussia, but Great Britain refused to make 
any commercial treaty since the power of the Congress under 
the Articles of Confederation was not recognized as binding, and 



American History. 109 

because the Bt-itish were determined to inte^fef? With American 
commerce. The British colonies in America were prohibited from 
dealing with America, and the retaliatory measures of the States 
were futile because of the absence of united action. The States 
refused to compel the payment of debts to British merchants, and 
England refused to surrender the forts held in the Northwest, 
or to make reparation for American property taken during and 
after the war. 

214. It was mainly the disputes arising between and among 
the States that made apparent the difficulties of the working of 
the new government. States levied taxes against the goods of 
other States and the selfish and retaliatory attitude of one state 
and then another threatened an oubreak of a civil war. 

215. The financial condition of the United States was deplor- 
able. The paper money had depreciated in value ; there was no 
specie ; it had all been taken by the foreign countries in payment 
for their goods ; the loans made by the European countries were 
almost due; Robert Morris resigned in 1784; States did not heed 
the call of Congress for their just shares of taxes. The United 
States was nearly bankrupt. 

The business conditions in the States were likewise deplorable. 
Many of them were compelled to issue new paper money, to pass 
debtor laws, and to force the people to accept these notes as 
legal tender, on heavy penalties. Merchants, on the other hand, 
refused to sell except for gold or other specie. 

216. In Massachusetts, the outbreaks against the conditions 
came to a head under the leadership of Daniel Shay, but the 
rebellion was put down after an attempt had been made 'to cap- 
ture the arsenal at Springfield. Shay and many of his partisans 
were arrested and imprisoned. There were similar attempts 
made in Vermont and New Hampshire. All these served to make 
more prominent the disastrous conditions under which all classes 
labored. 

217. Attempts were made to amend the Articles of Confedera- 
tion and give Congress greater powers; but they were defeated 
by one State or another. The patriotic leaders now considered 
the matter as more serious than ever and saw the necessity for 
a revision or a redrafting of the Articles of Confederation. 

218. The question of the boundary line between Virginia and 



110 American History. 

Maryland, dating back to the colonial period, was the direct 
cause that led to the revision of the Articles. Commissioners 
from these two States met at Alexandria, in 1785, to consider the 
boundary question, and they suggested the appointment of a com- 
mission every two years to discuss commercial regulations of the 
States bordering on the Potomac. ^Maryland suggested the invita- 
tion of Pennsylvania and Delaware to consider these commercial 
matters. The Virginia legislature proposed a meeting of dele- 
gates from all the States to meet at Annapolis, September 11 
1786. 

219. The Annapolis Convention had present delegates from 
the States of New York, New Jersey, Virginia, and Delaware, 
with others on their way. But none were appointed from Mary- 
land, South Carolina, Connecticut, and Georgia, and it was de- 
cided, that since all the States were not represented, the 
States be asked to appoint delegates to meet at Philadelphia 
during the following year to prepare amendments to the Articles 
of Confederation. Even then, only after six of the States had 
appointed these delegates did Congress ratify the suggestion of 
Hamilton, and decide upon the Convention. 

220. The Constitutional Convention met at Philadelphia on 
May 14, but the quorum from seven States did not appear until 
the 25th. Washington was chosen President of the Convention 
which comprised seventy-three members. For details of the 
Convention see answers that follow. 

221. The most prominent patriots were there working for the 
common weal. 

Among those present were: Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sher- 
man of Connecticut, Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts, Robert 
Morris of Pennsylvania, Edmund Randolph and James Madison 
from Virginia, John Dickinson from Delaware, Alexander Hamil- 
ton from New York, the Pinckneys and John Rutledge from small 
South Carolina. 

222. Our sources of Information about the debates and dis- 
putes in the Constitutional Convention are "Madison's Diary," 
the Official Journal, published in 1819, as "Eliot's Debates," and 
"The Federalist," issued by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay and 
James Madison. The Convention sat behind closed doors be- 



American History. Ill 

cause it feared the interference of the opponents of the Conven- 
tion and the influence of the people. 

223. The Virginia plan, largely the work of James Madison, 
the "Father of the Constitution," provided the following : That 
the national government should consist of the three recognized 
divisions of a republican form of government; that the national 
government should possess supreme legislative, executive, and 
judicial functions and powers; that the legislative division consist- 
of two houses, the House of Delegates, elected by the people of 
the separate States, and the Senate, chosen by the House of Dele- 
gates ; that representation in both Houses should be based on pop- 
ulation or on contributions toward the support of the national 
government ; and that the executive should be chosen by both 
houses of Congress and the members of the judiciary by the Sen- 
ate. This plan was attacked very bitterly by the representatives 
of the smaller States who wished to maintain the equal repre- 
sentation of the States. 

224. The New Jersey plan, the plan of the smaller States, 
was proposed by Governor Paterson and provided for the fol- 
lowing: the continuance of the Articles of Confederation, 
amended however to give greater powers to regulate commerce, 
raise revenues, and compel the obedience to the confederated 
laws ; there was also to be the threefold division of the powers of 
government. 

225. The Connecticut Compromise provided for the representa- 
tion of the States as States in the Senate (two Senators for each 
State) and the States according to their population in the lower 
and more popular House of Representatives. 

226. That the popular House of Representatives should rep- 
resent the people and be based on proportional representation. 
That the Senate should represent the equal powers of the States. 
That the number of representatives in the lower House should 
be determined by the total number of whites plus three-fifths of 
the total number of black persons in each State. That the 
national government should have sole power over foreign and 
interstate commerce, with the proviso however that no law be 
passed prior to 1808 which might prohibit the importation of 
slaves, but allowing the imposition of a tax of ten dollars on 
each negro imported. 



112 American History. 

227. The form of government provided for in the Constitu- 
tion established the supreme authority in the land. The tripartite 
form found in each of the State governments was maintained, the 
executive, the legislative, and the judicial. The single executive 
was given practically unlimited powers, as he was to be held 
solely responsible for the full enforcement of the laws, and, in 
order to prevent the hasty passage of ill-advised laws, there were 

.to be the two bodies, one representing the people with the powers 
to initiate all financial bills, and the other representing the States, 
to have the power of checking the hasty action of the lower 
house, and over these was the checking and balancing power of 
the President. The terms of office were fixed accordingly. In 
order to insure freedom of restraint from the legislature and the 
executive, the members of the judiciary were to hold office during 
life and good behavior, subject to no review by either of these 
coordinate branches of the government. 

228. The Constitution contained very little that was abso- 
lutely new in the line of government. It was based entirely on 
experience, on the already established State constitutions, and 
on the inherent rights of the English speaking people based on 
the written and unwritten constitution of England, the Magna 
Charta and all those other documents looked upon with sacred 
veneration by Englishmen as embodying their liberties. 

229. The features of the State governments embodied in the 
Constitution are: The threefold division of the government; the 
bicameral legislature ; the powers of the President similar to 
those of the Governors ; the origin of all financial bills in the more 
popular legislative house; the process of impeachment; the veto 
power and the message of the governor ; the "Bill of Rights" in 
the first ten amendments to the Constitution. 

230. The Constitution was submitted to the States for ratifi- 
cation, and was to be in full force on the adoption by nine of 
the thirteen States. The requisite number adopted it between 
September 28, 1787, and June 21, 1788. Those persons favoring 
the ratification were called Federalists, while those who opposed 
were called Anti-Federalists. The Federalists were found in the 
large cities, in the commercial and trade centers, while those 
opposed were found in places distant from the commercial and 
trade centers, thut is, the rural population. The Tories, feeling 



American History. 113 

that the Constitutiofl gave them protection, favored its adoption. 

231. The Constitution was adopted, and ratified and adopted by 
the States in the following order : Delaware, Pennsylvania, New 
Jersey, Georgia, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maryland, South 
Carolina, New Hampshire (the ninth), Virginia, New York, 
North Carolina, and Rhode Island (after Congress had threat- 
ened to cut her off from the privileges of trade). 

232. The arguments of the Anti-Federalists were in the main : 
The danger of tyrannical abuse of the power of the President; 
the danger and fear that the House of Representatives would 
bow too willingly to the whims of the populace and pass ill- 
advised laws ; the inequality of representation between the small- 
er and the larger States as shown in the representation in the 
Senate ; that there was no Bill of Rights to guarantee the civil 
liberties and rights of the people. The leaders of the opposition 
were : Elbridge Gerry, Richard Henry Lee, Patrick Henry, Sam- 
uel Adams, Governor George Clinton of New York. 

233. The Federalists, led by such men as Washington, John 
Jay, John Marshall, Alexander Hamilton, and James Madison, 
maintained that it was the best that could be devised under the 
circumstances, that it should be given a trial, that amendments 
could be made to it when experience showed that changes were 
necessary, and that its adoption was essential if the country were 
to be saved from the anarchy threatening it. 

234. The Federalist, a series of political essays (Hamilton 
wrote fifty-one, Madison, twenty-nine, and Jay, five) presented 
the case of the Federalists in such an able manner that it gained 
large numbers of adherents. 

235. The area in 1789 was about 828,000 square miles, almost 
one-fourth of the present area, 

236. The population was 3,929,000. One-fifth of this popula- 
tion was negro, and Virginia ranked first. Only five per cent, of 
the population was west of the Alleghenies. 

237. The largest cities were: Philadelphia, 42,500; New York, 
33,000; Boston, 18,000; Charleston, 16,000; Baltimore, 13,500. 
Conditions in the cities were such as would not be tolerated in 
the poorest town today ; the streets were unpaved and filthy ; and 
were either very poorly lighted, or not lighted at all. Disease 



114 American History. 

was rampant, and pestilences swept the cities frequently with 
terrible loss of life. 

238. People were divided into classes, the educated, the of- 
fice-holding, and the aristocratic, the middle class, and the very- 
poor whites. The negro, of course, was not considered socially 
at all, and the "poor white trash," the poorest of the poor white, 
ignorant and uneducated, were considered as below the negroes. 
The homes of the wealthy were spacious and had elaborate im- 
ported furnishings, while the homes of the lower classes were 
sparsely furnished in the plainest style. The wealthier classes 
were ostentatious in their displays. The drinking of spirituous 
liquors was common, and gambling was considered an accom- 
plishment. Lotteries were indulged in by all, and were the means 
of making many of the public improvements and enriching the 
colleges and schools. 

239. Agriculture was still the leading industry, with wheat, 
corn, cotton, tobacco, and indigo, the leading crops. Hemp and 
flax were cultivated in all states, as they furnished the cloth for 
the household linens. Cattle, sheep and hogs were raised in all 
states. Fishing, shipbuilding and commerce were the leading 
industries in the New England States, with the Middle Atlantic 
States rapidly catching up. There was but little mining, except 
of iron in New Jersey and in Pennsylvania and New York. The 
fur-trade with the Northwest, the Oregon country, was of great 
importance, and ships fitted out for China and India made stops 
on this west coast of the United States. The American clippers 
and schooners were found on every sea. 

240. The imports and exports were almost equal, amounting 
to about twenty million dollars each. The leading exports were 
furs, wheat, lumber, rice, dried fish, beef, pork, pitch, naval 
stores, tobacco. The leading imports were tea, sugar, molasses, 
salt, coffee, nails, spirits. 

241. The horse, the mail coach, the large covered wagon, the 
sail boat and the packet were the principal means of communica- 
tion and travel. The roads were poor and the rivers had to be 
forded, or were spanned by wooden bridges unable to sustain 
heavy loads. It required a full week to go from Boston to New 
York. Two days were required for the trip from New York 
to Philadelphia. 



American History. 



115 



242.— ' 




u 



1787, 
1787, 
1787, 
1788, 
1788, 
1788. 
1788, 
1788, 
1788, 
1788, 
1788, 
1789, 
1790, 
«^1791, 
'1792, 
1796, 
1803, 
1812, 
1816, 
1817, 
1818, 
1819, 
1820, 
1821, 
1836, 
1837, 
1845, 
1845, 
1846, 
1848, 
1850, 
1858, 
1859, 
1861, 
1863, 
1864, 
1867, 
1876, 
1889, 
1889, 
1889, 
1889, 
1890, 
1890, 
1896, 
1907, 
1912, 
1912, 
1868, 
1791, 
1900, 



Dec. 
Dec. 
Dec. 
Jan. 
Tan. 
Feb. 



April 28 



May 

June 

'une 

uly 



23 
21 
25 
26 
21 

May 29 
March 4 
June 1 
June 1 
Feb. 19 



April 30 



Dec 

Dec 

Dec, 

Dec. 14 

March 15 

Aug. 10 

June 15 

Jan. 26 

March 3 

Dec. 29 

Dec. 28 

May 

Sept. 

May 

Feb. 

Jan. 

June 

Oct. 

March 

Aug. 

Nov. 

Nov. 

Nov. 



Nov. 

Nov. 
Jan. 
Feb. 
July 



March 3 
June 14 



Under Civil 
Government 



1 

2 

3 I 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
23 
34 
35 
36 
37 
38 
39 
40 
41 
42 
43 
44 
45 
46 
47 
48 



Delaware 

Pennsylvania 

New Jersey 

Georgia 

Connecticut 

Massachusetts 

Maryland 

South Carolina .... 
New Hampshire . . . 

Virginia 

New York 

North Carolina .... 

Rhode Island 

Vermont 

Kentucky 

Tennessee 

Ohio 

Louisiana 

Indiana 

Mississippi 

Illinois 

Alabama 

Maine 

Missouri 

Arkansas 

Michigan 

Florida 

Texas 

Iowa 

Wisconsin 

California 

IMinnesota 

Oregon 

Kansas 

West Virginia 

Nevada 

Nebraska 

Colorado 

North Dakota 

South Dakota 

Montana 

Washington 

Idaho 

Wyoming | 

Utah 

Oklahoma 

New Mexico 

Arizona 

Alaska 

District of Columbia . 

Hawaii 

Porto Rico 

Philippines 

Guam 

Panama Canal Zone . . 
Tutuila, Samoa Islands 



,965 

44,832 

7,514 

58,725 

4,820 

8.039 

9,941 

30,495 

9,031 

40,262 

47,654 

48,740 

1,067 

9,124 

40,181 

41,687 

40,740 

45,409 

35,885 

46,362 

56,002 

51,279 

29,895 

68,727 

52,525 

57,480 

54,861 

262,398 

55,586 

55,256 

156,092 

80,858 

95,607 

81,774 

24,022 

109,821 

76,808 

103,658 

70,183 

76,868 

145,776 

66,836 

83,779 

97,594 

82,184 

69,414 

122,503 

113,840 

590,884 

60 

6,449 

3,435 

115,026 

210 

474 

11 



202,322 

7,665,111 

2,537,J67 

2,609,121 

1,114,756 

3,366,416 

1,295,346 

1,515,400 

430,572 

2,061,612 

9,113,614 

2,206,287 

542,610 

355,956 

2,289,905 

2,184,789 

4,767,121 

1,656,388 

2,700,876 

1,797,114 

5,638,591 

2,138,093 

742,371 

3,293,335 

1,574,449 

2,810,173 

752,619 

3,896,542 

2,224,771 

2,333,860 

2,377,549 

2,075,708 

672,765 

1,690,949 

1,221,119 

81,875 

1,192,214 

799,024 

577,056 

583,888 

376,053 

1,141,990 

325,594 

145,965 

373,351 

1,657,155 

327,301 

204,354 

64,356 

331,069 

191,909 

1,118,012 

7,635,426 

11,760 

43.995 

6,668 



116 



American History. 




■fjit: t c c Sh 



_5 O U o o 



Et3 
o u 

W 









! i • 




















; 






j 




a 
o 






! o. . 




















. 






• 




in 


in 


»i^ ,; 
















10 


<n 


(/i 


tn <n w) 


10 


ai 


(0 (0 


C.r, 


C 


rt 


C a; 






• • tn 




m VI C 


C 


c 


C C C tfl C ui c 


SSrt 




rt 


rt 


fi^> 










*j ■»- 


rt 


rt 


rt 




c« 
































1- 


1- 














".^ fr ir3 


UZ VS u 



<[il p^ 



3 n 2 c 



E S 
Q P 



ElSlc E E o, o. a aao.E&E a cx&c 
D~:r^(uu 4; i; d, (u (u <u v <u V v aju^ 



• 0\ 

lO 00 

VO r-l 

00 .A 






E E E 



00 CO(M 

r^ »-IOO 

00 00 CM 

rl ,-100 



lO to » 

SEE 



E E 



^:2J .00^ 

Is i^l 

- roo ir?"^^ 

'- (O ^ lO <^ 00 00 

rt E ^ • so CO t^ 



>^gg 



E ^ 



c rE 

o to J_ 























m 






o 










00 






OS 










00 






"S 
















o\ w 










00 






00*- 










00 




































1^ 

■S5 








00 >. 












00 ca 






















^ .-H u-)a\rot^ C>gQ 






3 00 -T-i 00 Ch <7v '-' S 

H 00 i" 000000 










877-1 
5 daj 
mos., 
885-1 
889-1 
893-1 

mos. 
mos., 
?08.. 






,-(,_( l-H 1-1 I— 









E E 



cmth eg CM CM » 



1-1 tn c<i 



to- r E E S 

O "> Vh u ii 
g ^ IU_4J W 



42 >. 

,-1 PO 






3 



'• 
















































' 


: • • :^ rt 














^ 


nessee 
isiana 
r York 
r Hamps 
nsylvan 






• -^^ 


^ 


J« 


>> 






















. . o o o 


o 




>^ 






• >>H rt>^ 


> 






s 


c 




5 . r 


•^ c 


t— ^ 




American History. 117 

244. There was no uniformity in the election of the Presi- 
dents in early days. In Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, 
the people had complete choice ; in Massachusetts and New 
Hampshire, they had a partial choice ; in Connecticut, Delaware. 
New Jersey, South Carolina, and Georgia, the electors were 
chosen by the legislatures ; New York chose none, because of a 
quarrel between the two houses. Owing to the fact that there 
was no Senate selected or in session on March 4, 1789, and less 
than a majority of the House of Representatives until April, the 
votes of the electors could not be examined and verified until 
the end of April. Accordingly, Washington, the unanimous 
choice of the electors, did not take office until April 30, 1789. 
The candidate receiving the next highest number of electoral 
votes, was John Adams, and he became Vice-President. 

PERIOD OF NATIONAL EXPANSION 

245. April 30, 1789 to March 4, 1797. 

246. The members of the Executive Departments created in 
accordance with the needs of the period were: The Department 
of State, with Thomas Jefferson as Secretary: the Department 
of War, with General Henry Knox as Secretary; the Treasury 
Department, with Alexander Hamilton at the head ; and the 
Attorney-General, with Edmund Randolph as its head. The 
custom of calling these men together as a Cabinet v" ' origi- 
nated by Washington, who sought the advice of these practical 
men, two of whom were of the opposing party. 

247. Because of the poverty-stricken condition of the Federal 
treasury, the first legislation was the enactment of a tariff law, 
which imposed slightly protective duties on imports. Specific 
duties were laid on Wines, teas, nails, and about thirty other 
articles, and ad valorem duties on a number of other articles, 
including paper, leather and tinware. The average duty was 
between eight and nine per cent. The revenue so raised was 
insufficient, and the duties were increased by subsequent legis- 
lation. 

248. Congress in 1789 organized the Federal Judiciary, with 
ja Chief Justice and five Associate Justices of the Supreme Court, 



118 American History. 

and four Circuit Courts and thirteen District Courts. John Jay 
was the first Chief Justice. 

249. There were 26 Senators, two from each State, and 65 Rep- 
resentatives (see Constitution, Article 1, Section 2). 

250. The question of a Bill of Rights, similar to the English 
Bill of Rights, guaranteeing the civil rights of the people, was 
made one of the leading reasons for the opposition to the ratifi- 
cation of the Constitution, and the first Congress kept the implied 
promise made by the P^ederalist leaders and submitted twelve 
amendments, ten of which were ratified by three-fourths the 
total number of States in 1791. The Eleventh Amendment to the 
Constitution was adopted as a result of the suit, Chisholm vs. 
State of Georgia, and prohibited the bringing of suits against a 
State by the citizen of any State. This has been remedied in 
most States by the establishment of State Courts of Claim. 

251. The work of Hamilton as a financier was most remark- 
able in that it established the financial credit of the new nation. 
Hamilton reported to Congress that the United States owed 
$54,000,000, of which $12,000,000 was due European countries for 
loans made during the war. The question of paying the debts 
in the United States at full value arose, since the money had de- 
preciated considerably. Hamilton's views that the claims should 
be paid at face value were adopted, and Congress provided for the 
payment of all debts at full value. 

252. During the war many of the States had incurred debts 
for supplies, to pay the armies, etc. Many of the States had paid 
their debts, but there were still a few that had still heavy indebt- 
edness. Hamilton urged that the United States assume these State 
debts and pay them, because the debts had been incurred for the 
benefit of the nation. The Southern States, having paid ofif most 
of their debts, opposed this, while the Northern and Middle States 
favored the assumption of States' debts. * 

253. The question of the location of the national capital came 
up and, by means of a compromise, the capital was located on 
the banks of the Potomac, and the assumption of State debts by 
the Federal Government was decided upon. 

254. The revenues for the payment of these debts was to be 
raised by means of an excise tax, the taxes to be laid on spirituous 
liquors distilled in the United States. 



American History. - 119 

255. As another part of Hamilton's financial policy Hamilton 
proposed the chartering of a United States Bank, for a period 
of twenty years, with a capital of $10,000,000, the Government 
subscribing $2,000,000 in Government bonds. The bank was used 
as a place of deposit for Government funds, and to aid it in bor- 
rowing, collecting and paying out moneys, 

256. This matter of chartering the United States Bank brought 
up the question of the powers of Congress. 

257. This gave rise to two parties, those that urged that Con- 
gress had not the power because there was no specific power given 
to it to pass such a law, that it was not expressly granted by the 
Constitution, while the majority maintained that the power was 
one of the implied powers of Congress found in the last clause 
of the powers of Congress, as one of the "necessary and proper 
for carrying into execution the foregoing powers." The former 
were called the "strict constructionists," while the latter were 
called the "loose constructionists." 

258. The "elastic clause," the "clause of implied powers," the 
"sleeping giant" clause is the clause (Art. I, Section 8, Clause 
18) : "To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper 
for carrying into execution the foregoing powers,' and all other 
powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the 
United States, or in any department or office thereof." 

259. The causes that led to the formation of political parties 
were : The difference in interpretation of the powers of Con- 
gress (Federalists and Anti-Federalists) ; the differences of opin- 
ion as to the rights and requirements of the various sections of 
the United States (the North and the South) ; the assumption 
of the debts incurred by the States during the American Revo- 
lution ; the enmity between the patriots ; the difficulties between 
France and England, and hatred for the British. 

260. The French people, as a result of the terrible excesses 
of the royalty and the nobility, revolted, overthrew the mon- 
archy and established the French Republic on Sept. 22, 1792. In 
April of the following year war was declared by France against 
England. The French expected America to aid her in this war, 
and to grant her privileges as to the use of the American ports 
not accorded to the other nations. 

(a) The Republicans were those headed by Jefferson and Burr, 



120 American History. 

who favored the recognition of the French efforts and opposed 
(b) the FederaHsts whose leaders were Washington, Adams and 
Hamilton and who believed that an attitude of strict neutrality 
would best conserve the interests of the United States. 

261. (a)' Washington decided upon an absolutely neutral 
course, embodied in his Proclamation of Neutrality, April 22, 

1793. In this Proclamation he declares that the United States 
would take the part of neither of the belligerents, according to 
each equal rights as to the use of our ports, etc. (b) This 
action enraged the French Minister to America, Genet, who 
fitted out privateers in American ports to prey on British com- 
merce. Genet's recall was demanded, and he was succeeded by 
others equally objectionable. 

262. In order to destroy the power of the French on the sea. 
Great Britain, by her Orders in Council, prohibited the trading 
with France or her colonies in contrabands of war, under penalty 
of capture and forfeiture of vessels and goods. Several hun- 
dred American vessels engaged in trade with the French West 
Indies were captured. 

263. England had an enormous navy on the sea. To man her 
ships fully she required more sailors than she could get in volun- 
teer enlistments. The "press gangs" in England could not supply 
enough to make up the shortage, and she thereupon claimed the 
right to stop neutral vessels and search for seamen of British 
birth. Even seamen of American birth were impressed. War 
between the two nations threatened. Congress passed an em- 
bargo law and made appropriations for increasing the American 
Navy in 1794. 

264. In order to prevent war, Washington appointed a com- 
mission, headed by Chief Justice John Jay, to negotiate with Eng- 
land for a definite treaty of commerce and the settlement of 
disputes. The treaty was drawn up in London on November 19, 

1794, and under its terms Great Britain was to evacuate the forts 
in the Northwest, to settle the non-payments of debts to Ameri- 
can merchants, and to pay for the ships seized in carrying out 
the Orders in Council. Nothing was mentioned about the im- 
pressment of American seamen. The British did not recede 
from their position in regard to neutral trade, and the treaty 



'American HistorV. 121 

was passed by the Senate because it realized that this was the 
best treaty that could then be negotiated. 

265. In 1794, Thomas Pinckney was sent to Spain to negotiate 
a treaty which provided for the free navigation of the Missis- 
sippi, the right to deposit goods at New Orleans, and fixed the 
boundary line between Florida and the United States. 

266. As a result of the invasion of the Indian territory by the 
pioneers, the Indians frequently attacked the settlements. The 
American forces sent to punish the Indians were defeated, and 
another expedition under the command of General Wayne de- 
feated the Indians in the battle of "Fallen Timbers," on the 
Maumee River. After this the Americans were permitted to 
settle the territory. 

267. To raise funds for Government expenses and to meet the 
debts incurred during the Revolution an internal revenue tax 
on distilled spirits was imposed. The Western farmers, owing 
to the difficult transportation, converted grain into distilled 
liquors. They naturally resisted the attempt to collect the tax, 
and the collectors of internal revenue were severely beaten and 
driven out of the country. Washington called out 13,000 soldiers, 
who, under the command of Governor Lee of Virginia, promptly 
suppressed the insurrection. This demonstrated to the people 
the strength of the National Government to enforce its laws. 

268. Washington, declining to serve for a third term as Presi- 
dent, issued his famous "Farewell Address" on September 17, 
1796, in which he strongly urged the nation "to keep clear of 
permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world." 

269. John Adams and Thomas Pinckney, prominent leaders of 
the Federalist party, were nominated for the Presidency and 
Vice-Presidency, respectively. Their opponents were Thomas 
Jefferson and Aaron Burr. The result of the election was the 
choice of John Adams for President, and Thomas Jefferson, 
who received but three votes less than Adams, to the Vice- 
Presidency, March 4, 1798, to March 4, 1802. 

270. France was still disgruntled at the refusal of the United 
States to aid her in her war against Great Britain. To show her 
anger, and because the American ships continued to trade with 
Great Britain, the French war vessels preyed upon American 
commerce. A short naval war took place, in which the Con- 



122 American History. 

stellation captured the French frigate L'Insurgente and the Amer- 
icans defeated the French in a few naval engagements. The 
French then announced that they were ready to receive the 
American emissaries. On September 30, 1800, a treaty was con- 
cluded in which the treaty of 1778 was declared null and void. 

271. The French Minister to America was recalled. Wash- 
ington replaced James Monroe as Minister to France by Pinckney, 
but the French Government refused to receive him. A commis- 
sion, consisting of Elbridge T. Gerry, John Marshall and Charles 
C. Pinckney, was designated to negotiate with France, but they 
were refused official recognition. Three secret agents of the 
French Minister of Foreign Affairs, the famous Talleyrand, de- 
manded $250,000 for the Directory and the Ministers as the 
price of an audience. The Americans refused to consider the 
proposal, and so notified President Adams. Congress pre- 
pared against France ; Washington again became commander-in- 
chief of the army; the Navy Department was created; and war 
vessels were ordered to be built. 

272. Owing to President Adams' unpopularity and the troubles 
with France, the Republicans, among whom were a large number 
of foreigners, were extreme in their abuse of the President and 
the Government. In 1798 Congress, then under Federalist con- 
trol, passed what are known as the Alien and Sedition Laws. 
In effect they were: The NaturaHzation Act, which raised the 
period of stay in America from five to fourteen years (repealed 
in 1802) ; the Alien Act, which authorized the President to expel 
from the United States all aliens whom he should consider as 
dangerous ; the Sedition Act provided for the punishment by 
fine and imprisonment of any person who should bring the Gov- 
ernment into disrepute. 

273. The denunciation of these laws was bitter. At the instiga- 
tion of Jefferson, the Legislatures of Kentucky and Virginia 
passed a series of resolutions condemning the Government for 
the passage of these resolutions. The Kentucky Legislature first 
enunciated the doctrine of "nullification." The Virginia resolu- 
tions were drawn up by James Madison and the Kentucky reso- 
lutions were written by Thomas Jefferson. 

274. The Federalist party was bound to fall into disfavor. The 
temperament of the President, the quarrels among the Federalist 



American History. 123 

leaders, the rise of the Republican party, the passage of the 
AHen and Sedition laws, the attack of Hamilton on Adams, served 
to disrupt the Federalist party. 

275. 1800-1808, Republican party, succeeded later by the present 
Democratic party. 

276. Jefferson and Burr, the two candidates for President and 
Vice-President, respectively, of the Republican party, received 
an equal number of votes. According to the Constitution, Article 
H, Section I, Clause 2, the election was thrown into the House 
of Representatives, where, under the influence of Hamilton, the 

•Federalist representatives voted for Jefferson as against Burr. 
Jefferson secured the votes of ten of the sixteen States. 

277. Before going out of office, President Adams made many 
appointments of Federalists to offices. The commissions for 
these were withheld by Jefferson, whose Secretary of State, 
James IMadison, was sued in order to compel him to deliver the 
appointment to one William Marbury, a judicial appointee of 
Adams. The Supreme Court refused to issue the writ, in a de- 
cision rendered by Chief Justice John Marshall, who enunciated 
the important doctrine that the Federal Courts might declare 
null and void any act that they deemed contrary to the spirit and 
letter of the Constitution. 

278. John Marshall, a prominent Federalist, was appointed to 
the ofiice of Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court 
by President Adams. He served for many years, and during 
the half century that he was on the bench he proved himself one 
of the greatest of jurists, enunciating the doctrine of the su- 
premacy of the National Constitution and the Government under 
it. His was the force of moulding the country legally into a 
nation. 

279. In 17o3, Louisiana, with the Island of New Orleans, then 
French territory, was ceded to Spain as a reward for her assist- 
ance in the Seven Years' War. West Florida, which had been 
ceded to Great Britain in 1763, was ceded to Spain at the close 
of the Revolution. Napoleon, then Emperor of France, was 
planning to build a French Empire in North America, which 
plan was aided by the cession back to France of Louisiana Terri- 
tory in exchange for Italian Tuscany, in 1800. This information, 
when it reached the American people, aroused great fears as to 



124 American History. 

the safety of the American States, due, in part, to the boundless 
ambitions of Napoleon. In addition to this cession of territory, 
the right of deposit of merchandise at New Orleans was with- 
drawn by the Spanish Governor. Jefferson, an ardent pacifist, 
in order to oppose peaceably the demands of the Federalists for 
a declaration of war against France and Spain, instructed Min- 
ister Livingston to buy New Orleans and West Florida. In Jan- 
uary, 1803, James Monroe was appointed special envoy to assist 
Livingston. Napoleon had, in the meantime, started his plan 
of conquest, but was defeated in his attempt to reconquer Santo 
Domingo. England was again preparing for war against Napo- 
leon, and the French Emperor decided to forestall the British 
attempt to seize the French Territory of Louisiana — which they 
could very easily do because of their enormous navy. The French 
Secretary of State, Talleyrand, therefore offered Louisiana Ter- 
ritory to the American Minister. The day following the offer 
Monroe arrived at Paris, and the American commissioners re- 
solved to exceed their instructions and accept the offer of the 
French, April 30, 1803. Fifteen million dollars were paid for this 
territory of New Orleans, an area equal to more than one-third 
of the total area of the United States. 

280. The gains to the United States as a result of this pur- 
chase were : It removed unwelcome European neighbors from 
west of the United States ; it doubled the area of the United 
States; it provided room for the development of the United 
States ; it emphasized the fact that the future development of the 
United States depended largely upon a loose interpretation of 
the Constitution, and that the Constitution was to be interpreted 
in the light of the events of the time of the interpretation ; that 
it was a living constitutional organism; it gained an area that 
was to become the granary of the world. 

28L April 30, 1803. 

282. That the powers of Congress would be construed In terms 
of Section 8 of Article 1 of the Constitution, including the "elas- 
tic" clause. Jefferson and the Democratic party were "loose 
constructionists'* when the welfare of the United States was 
concerned. 

283. Jefferson was interested to know the extent of the West and 
to discover a route from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Moun- 



American History. 125 

tains and beyond. Accordingly, early in January, 1803, Congress, 
at the urgent request of Jefferson, authorized the organization of 
an expedition to explore the West and also to secure the trade 
of the Indians west of the Mississippi. In May, 1804, after the 
purchase of Louisiana, an expedition under the combined com- 
mands of Captains Lewis and Clarke began the ascent of the 
Missouri River, For six months they traveled through this un- 
known territory, reaching the region of Bismarck, North Da- 
kota, where they settled down for the winter. In the spring of 
1805 they crossed the mountains, and in November of the same 
year they beheld the Pacific Ocean and the territory discovered 
by Captain Robert Gray, an American seaman, who also dis- 
covered and named the River Columbia. These events strength- 
ened the claim of the United States to the Oregon Territory. 

284. Lieut. Zebulon Pike, an army officer, was sent to find the 
source of the Mississippi. Failing in this, on his return to St. 
Louis he explored the Arkansas and Red rivers, and discovered 
"Pike's Peak." He reached Santa Fe in February, 1807. 

285. The invention of the steamboat, in 1807, by Robert Fulton. 
This boat, the Clermont, made the trip up the Hudson, a distance 
of 150 miles, in 32 hours (August 11, 1807). 

286. The Barbary States or Powers were those nations of 
Northern Africa bordering on the Mediterranean Sea, including 
Tripoli, Algiers, Tunis, Morocco, now under complete control 
of the European nations of France, Spain, or Great Britain. 

287. For generations the European nations had paid tribute to 
escape the attacks of the Barbary pirates. Their ships preyed 
upon European and American commerce in the Mediterranean 
Sea, seizing ships and cargoes and enslaving the crews. The 
United States had paid tribute to these powers, but as a signal 
act of defiance the Pasha of Tripoli had ordered the flagstaff of 
the American Embassy in Tripoli chopped down. President Jef- 
ferson thereupon ordered a small fleet to destroy the Algerian 
pirates. In 1803, Commodore Preble with a larger fleet prosecuted 
the attack against the Pasha and destroyed the city. The Dey of 
Algiers also came to terms after being severely punished. The 
Mediterranean Sea was once and for all time cleared of pirates. 

288. In 1804, Jefferson was re-elected President of the United 
States, and George Clinton, Governor of New York, was elected 



126 American History. 

Vice-President. This marked the destruction of the Federalist 
party as a political party in the United States. See answer 314. 

289. Because of the political and personal antagonism of Alex- 
ander Hamilton, Aaron Burr, candidate for Governor of New 
York, was defeated. He challenged Hamilton to a duel, and in 
the encounter (July, 1804) Hamilton was killed. 

290. Burr became a political and social outcast. He organized 
an expedition to bring about the separation of the West from the 
territory of the United States. Because of the failure of the 
plan, which was divulged to Jefferson, he fled to Florida, but 
was captured and placed on trial for treason. He died in ob- 
scurity, ostracised for his many deeds in opposition to the con- 
ventions of society and the state. 

291. War between Napoleon and Great Britain was renewed in 
1803. The American shippers were reaping a rich harvest in the 
trade with the French and Spanish, particularly in the carrying 
of the products of their colonies. The British determined to mo- 
nopolize this trade and enforced literally and strictly their naviga- 
tion laws, working irreparable damage to the carrying trade of 
the United States. Napoleon was supreme in Europe, while 
Great Britain, as a result of the defeat of the combined French 
and Spanish fleet at Trafalgar (1805) dominated the sea. Neu- 
tral trade was wholly in the hands of the Americans. By attack- 
ing this trade each of the belligerents hoped to destroy the other. 
Napoleon inaugurated his "Continental System" in 1806, by in- 
sisting that Prussia should close all her ports to Great Britain. 
The latter retaliated with the blockade of the northern coast of 
Europe, which brought forward the Berlin Decree of Napoleon 
(November, 1806), declaring the British Isles to be in a state 
of blockade, and forbidding all trade with Great Britain. Great 
Britain responded with her Orders in Council, in 1807. These 
orders prohibited neutral vessels from trading with any port in 
Europe from which the British flag was excluded, unless certain 
duties were first paid at some British port. This was followed 
by Napoleon's Milan Decree (December 17, 1807), which declared 
that any vessel that submitted to British search or entered a Brit- 
ish port for any reason whatsoever was liable to seizure. These 
were all "paper" blockades, without sufficient naval or military 
force to back them up. The only important consequence of these 



American History. 127 

orders and decrees was the seizure of American carriers by both 
of the warring nations, 

292. England had an enormous fleet of vessels requiring sailors 
which she could not man from her own sailors. She made use 
of the right of search and impressment of sailors in order to fill 
the quota of sailors on her naval vessels. British war vessels 
were stationed outside the American harbors, searched all vessels 
for contraband goods and impressed American seamen. It is 
said that more than four thousand American sailors were com- 
pelled to serve in the British navy, 

293. The climax of these outrages was the attack of the Leop- 
ard on the Chesapeake in Hampton Roads, on June 22, 1807. 
The Chesapeake, an American frigate, refused to obey the call of 
the British frigate Leopard, and was attacked with solid shot. 
Four "deserters," three of whom were Americans, were taken off 
the vessels, three Americans killed, and several wounded. The 
Americans were in a state of fury, and demanded immediate 
satisfaction. 

294. Jefferson was a firm believer in peace, and refused to urge 
war against Great Britain. He ordered the British vessels to 
leave American waters and ordered the building of small gun- 
boats for coast defense. In the meantime a commission consist- 
ing of Monroe and William Pinckney was sent to England to 
renew the Jay treaty, but Jefferson refused to submit the treaty 
that was negotiated because England refused to give up the rights 
of search and impressment, 

295. Not succeeding in making either of the two European bel- 
ligerents come to terms, Jefferson thereupon urged an embargo 
on American shipping. This law, passed near the close of 1807, 
prohibited the sailing of American vessels to foreign ports. The 
results were disastrous to American shipping, and at the same 
time placed a burden on the working classes of Great Britain, 
but that country refused to recede one step from her declared 
policy. 

296. (a) The trade of the United States was ruined, ships 
were laid up in the harbors, the planters and other exporters 
were deprived of their foreign markets and ruined ; but it gave 
an impetus to American manufactures. Drastic laws were passed 
to punish smuggling, which increased with great rapidity, (b) 



128 American History. 

The Embargo Act proved a failure. For it was substituted the 
Non-Intercourse Act of 1809, which prohibited commercial inter- 
course with Great Britain and France and their colonies and de- 
pendencies. 

297. James Madison succeeded Jefferson as President, in 1808- 
1809. Of the Republican party. 

298. The new President, James Madison, desired to continue 
with the peaceful policy of his predecessor, and it appeared for 
a time that the difficulties between the two English-speaking 
countries would be amicably adjusted. The English Minister at 
Washington, David Erskine, arranged an agreement by which 
the various objectionable English Orders would be withdrawn, 
and Madison proclaimed the reopening of trade with Great 
Britain. Erskine, however, was superseded by Minister Jackson, 
who refused to sanction the agreement of his predecessor, which 
had been repudiated by the British government, and for his 
objectionable conduct Madison declared him persona non grata. 

299. The Orders in Council are Orders having the full effect 
of laws, issued by the British Privy Council, in cases where 
Parliament is not asked to act, or Parliament is not in session. 
These Orders take immediate effect, and may be changed upon 
a moment's notice. 

300. Napoleon issued and enforced the most outrageous of his 
decrees, the Rambouillet Decree, which caused the confiscation 
and sale of every American vessel which had entered or should 
enter the ports of France after May 20, 1809. The treasury of 
France was enriched by some ten milHon dollars. This was in 
retahation for the passage of the Non-Intercourse Act. In re- 
venge for this deed the American Minister to Russia, John 
Quincy Adams, secured the firm friendship of Russia in partly 
breaking down the Napoleonic Continental System. Russia, like- 
wise, aligned herself against France. 

301. The union of all the Indian tribes on the Western border 
to resist the encroachments of the whites was followed by the 
bribery of the Indians by the British commissioners and agents 
who supplied them with arms and ammunition. Governor Will- 
iam Henry Harrison of the Indiana Territory, alarmed at the 
progress of the Indians, marched against them, and defeated them 



American History. 129 

in a battle on the Tippecanoe Creek. This broke up the Indian 
opposition to the western movement of the Americans. 

302. The Congress of 1811 contained a very large number of 
young men, on whom the outrages of Great Britain and France 
had made a most unfavorable impression. They came chiefly 
from the South and the West, and were imbued with an ardent 
Americanism that is to be found in the naturally aggressive, 
ambitious, self-reliant Americans of the younger generation. 
Many of the most prominent leaders during the next fifty years 
were to be found among these new men. The great figure, Henry 
Clay, a thorough exemplar of the spirit of the West, was elected 
Speaker of the House of Representatives. John C. Calhoun, 
then thirty years of age, was made a member of the Committee 
on Foreign Relations of the House, though serving his first term 
as Representative. The Congress decided, among other things, 
that the army should be increased ; that the navy should be in- 
creased and that merchant vessels be fitted to resist the British 
and the French. On June 18, 1812, war was declared against 
Great Britain, just five days before that government revoked the 
Orders in Council. 

303. June 18, 1812— December, 1814 (January 8, 1815). See 
answer 312. 

304. The causes of the War were : The impressment of Ameri- 
can seamen ; the seizure of American vessels ; the violation and 
destruction of American commerce in American waters ; the out- 
rageous Orders in Council; the atrocities and attacks of the In- 
dians instigated by British agents. 

305. Were it not for the fact that Great Britain had cast all in 
the scales in a war to crush Napoleon, there is no doubt that the 
outcome of the second war with Great Britain would have ended 
other than it did. America was totally unprepared for a war 
against her former enemy. The regular army had less than 7,000 
men, led by old or inexperienced officers ; the navy was small 
and incomplete. Great Britain had complete dominion over the 
seas, with a navy of more than one thousand vessels, and an 
army of trained soldiers under capable officers. The American 
naval officers, however, together with the crews, were the equals 
of the British in point of efficiency, but they were exceedingly 
few in comparison. 



130 American History. 

306. Despite the almost total unpreparedness against a superior 
nation, the campaigns were planned with great confidence. Three 
armies were brought together on the Canadian border to defend 
the country and to invade the British colony. One was to defend 
Detroit, another was to cross the Niagara River and advance on 
Toronto, with the aid of the army from Detroit, and the third 
was to join the other two and capture Montreal and Quebec. 

307. The Detroit army was under the command of General 
William Hull, and being met by a British and Indian army, sur- 
rendered at Detroit to an inferior force. A detachment of six 
hundred Kentucky troops surrendered to a superior force of 
British and Indians on the River Raisin, and General WilHam 
Henry Harrison, in command of the American forces, found it 
extremely difficult to hold the Northwest Territory. The Ameri- 
cans who had crossed the Niagara River were defeated and com- 
pelled to surrender. The third American army that was to ad- 
vance by way of Lakes Champlain and George did nothing 
because it feared the same fate as the others. 

308. The American frigate Constitution, commanded by Captain 
Isaac Hull, defeated the British war vessel Guerriere, under Cap- 
tain Dacre; the American sloop Wasp defeated the British brig 
Frolic, in mid-Atlantic Ocean; the American frigate United 
States captured the Macedonia off the coast of North Africa; 
the Constitution destroyed the Java off the coast of Brazil. How- 
ever, the Chesapeake, In an encounter outside Boston harbor 
with the British ship Shannon, was disabled and surrendered 
in spite of the order of Captain Lawrence, of "Don't give up 
the ship" fame. Captain David Porter, In the Essex, destroyed 
many British whaling ships In the South Atlantic and the Pacific, 
until his vessel was destroyed In the harbor of Valparaiso, to 
which he had fled to escape capture by the British. 

309. In order to enable General William Henry Harrison to 
hold the Northwest Territory It was necessary that the British 
control of Lake Erie be loosened. Accordingly, Commodore 
Oliver H. Perry, In command of Lake Erie, determined to build 
a fleet and attack the British. With his fleet of nine vessels he 
attacked the superior British fleet In Put-In-Bay (September 10, 
1813) and quickly destroyed or captured the entire fleet. The 
consequences were : enthusiasm instilled In the Americans, the 



American History. 131 

recapture of Detroit, the defeat of the British at the Battle of 
the Thames. Alichigan again became American territory. The 
Americans followed up these advantages on the Niagara fron- 
tier and Toronto was captured, the Battles of Chippewa and 
Lundy's Lane followed, and the Battle of Lake Champlain added 
much to the credit of American arms. 

310. In retaliation for the burning of the city of Toronto 
(York), the British Admiral Cochrane ordered the destruction 
of American property along the Atlantic, and General Ross was 
ordered to capture Washington. The Capital was easily taken, 
the city sacked and entirely destroyed, and two weeks later 
Baltimore was attacked. The British, however, did not follow 
up their victories, because of slight defeats at Fort McHenry and 
Baltimore, and withdrew from the Chesapeake. 

311. Though the Americans did not have a navy as large as 
the British, yet the value of the enormous fleet of privateersmen, 
fitted out to prey on British commerce, was seen in the change 
in public feeling in Great Britain, so that the merchants and 
ship-owners of Great Britain demanded the termination of the 
war. Before news reached America of the signing of the treaty 
of peace, the British were decisively defeated at New Orleans. 

312. Andrew Jackson, after defeating the Creek Indians in 
Alabama, was put in command of the American army of 5,000 
pioneers, and marksmen and sharpshooters from the West. Op- 
posed to him was the British army of 10,000 trained British vet- 
erans, supported by a fleet of fifty vessels. The individual fire 
of the splendid marksmen comprising the American army told 
so on the attacks made in mass by the British soldiers that they 
suffered a decisive defeat, with a loss of one-fifth of their army 
and the death of their leader. The Americans, behind their cotton 
bale breastworks, lost only 71. This was on January 8, 1815, after 
the treaty of peace had been signed in December, 1814. 

313. The treaty of peace, signed at Ghent, provided for the 
mutual restoration of all captured territory and for commissions 
to settle all boundary disputes. The questions of impressment 
and the right of search were not included, though with the reign 
of peace in Europe the questions did not need to be brought up, 
and with the development of the United States as a world power, 
that liberty was never again taken by any foreign nation. 



132 American History. 

314. The New England States were opposed to the war, and 
particularly to the policies of the President and the party in 
power. The few remaining Federalist leaders met in Hartford, in 
December, 1814, and adopted resolutions in opposition to the 
war. The resolutions were similar to the Kentucky and Virginia 
Resolutions of 1798. The New England States refused to re- 
spond to the President's requisition for troops, and the subscrip- 
tions to the loans were meager. 

315. The results of this war, small as it was, were monumental. 
It created a feeling of union and nationality between the East and 
the West. The impetus given to the manufacture of articles cut 
off as a result of the ravages of the British and the French ves- 
sels was maintained, and the United States became one of the 
great manufacturing nations. The destruction of the Federalist 
Party made the Republican Party supreme. 

316. The attacks on American shipping, the blockades- declared 
by the belligerent European nations, the Embargo, the Non-In- 
tercourse acts, all tended to withdraw capital from the shipping 
and carrying industry, and the capital had to seek another channel 
for investment, which it found in manufactures. There arose in 
the United States numerous manufactories, and the older in- 
dustries increased in number. After the war, the British manu- 
facturers, in order to regain their lost American markets, poured 
into America their manufactures at prices lower than the cost 
of manufacture of the same goods in America. During the year 
after the war. Great Britain exported to America more than 
$125,000,000 worth of manufactures, and American manufacturers 
could not meet the low prices of the British. Accordingly, Con- 
gress, in 1816, imposed a duty of 25% on imports of cottons and 
woolens, and provided for heavy duties on iron imports. All 
sections of the country favored this protective tariff, but the ship- 
ping interests, fearing a loss of their carrying trade, opposed it. 

317. See answer 255. 

318. At the expiration of the twenty-year term of the charter 
of the United States Bank, Congress refused to recharter it. Nu- 
merous State Banks sprang up, and finances were unsettled. Busi- 
ness was in a state of panic. To stabilize affairs. Congress char- 
tered for twenty years and organized the Second United States 
Bank with a capital of $35,000,000, one-fifth of which was to be 



American History. 133 

subscribed for by the national government. The President was 
to appoint one-fifth of the directors. The Bank had its main of- 
fice in Philadelphia, with branches in many of the largest cities. 

319. The cheap land ofifered by the government to homesteaders 
and pioneers attracted large numbers to the western territory. 
Land could be had as low as $2 an acre. Numerous towns and 
settlements sprang up after the backwoodsman and the pioneer 
had made their advent into the territory. As more people came 
West, the value of the land rose, the number of immigrants from 
the European countries increased, and the farmers and land own- 
ers disposed of their lands at higher prices and moved westward 
to the cheaper and less cultivated sections. By 1810, Kentucky's 
population was more than 400,000 ; Tennessee had a population of 
more than a quarter of a million; Ohio, 230,000; Indiana, 25,000, 
and Illinois, 12,000. After the war emigration to the West took 
on increased volume because of the unsettled industrial condi- 
tions in the East, the absence of danger from the Indians, the ease 
with which the soil could be tilled, the opening of the mines of 
iron, coal, and lead in Western Pennsylvania, Illinois and Wis- 
consin, and the troublous and hard times in Europe following the 
Napoleonic Wars. 

320. The routes were by ways of the valleys and the waterways. 
From the New England States, the routes were by way of Al- 
bany, the Mohawk Valley and Lake Erie ; from the Hudson, to the 
head waters of the Allegheny, and over and through the pass at 
Pittsburg. The "Conestoga" wagon drawn by four or six horses, 
the flat-bottomed boat, the pack on the horse, the pack on the 
back of the man himself, were the means of transporting the 
necessary freight. Charges on the boat and on the wagon were 
so much per pound. Roads in large number were built by private 
companies, and tolls collected from their users. 

321. In order to satisfy the demand made by the people of the 
West, as well as some of those in the East, Congress, in 1806, ap- 
propriated $30,000 for the construction of a road from Cumber- 
land, Maryland, to the Ohio River. Work was begun in 1811, 
and by 1820, it had been extended to Vandalia, then the capital of 
Illinois. Between 1806 and 1838, nearly seven milHon dollars were 
appropriated for its repair and extension. With the opening of the 
railroads, this road was given over to the States through which it 



134 American History. 

ran. It made access to the West much easier and cheapened 
transportation. 

222. Owing to this migration to the West, there arose a demand 
for internal improvements. Many of the States themselves 
made improvements, but all of these were local, and there then 
arose the demand that the national government appropriate funds 
for this purpose. The harbors on the coasts were improved, 
roads were constructed, aid given to the construction of canals, 
etc. 

323. In New York, under the energetic leadership of De Witt 
Clinton, the Erie Canal was built, extending through the Mohawk 
Valley from Albany to Buffalo, a distance of almost four hundred 
miles. It took eight years to build, at a cost of $7,000,000. The 
importance of the opening of this canal to the cities in New York 
State, particularly to Buffalo, New York, and the cities along its 
route, cannot be estimated. The rates of transportation dropped 
from $32 a ton by wagon for one hundred miles to $1 per ton by 
boat. The route via the Great Lakes, Erie Canal, and the Hud- 
son River connected the West with the Atlantic Ocean and Eu- 
rope. The Erie Canal also became the favorite route for passen- 
ger and freight travel to the West. 

324. The growth of the West from the first was remarkable. 
The population increased so rapidly that the following States 
were soon carved from the national domain and admitted into 
the Union: Ohio, 1803; Louisiana, 1812; Indiana, 1816; Missis- 
sippi, 1817; Illinois, 1818, and Alabama. 1819. The West was the 
melting pot of the various nationalities and races. The immi- 
grants were from all sections and from all countries of Europe. 
They knew no class or social distinctions ; to them the individual 
qualities of self-help, courage, loyalty to their new American 
ideals, were the indexes of the good American. No privileged 
classes were recognized, and none existed. The spirit of democ- 
racy predominated. The constitutions adopted were of the demo- 
cratic type. The judiciary was made elective instead of ap- 
pointive. 

325. Recognizing that education was an essential for good 
American citizenship, we find that academies and schools were or- 
ganized very early. The common public school, however, did 
not exist until much later in the number that v/ere required by 



American History. 135 

the population. In 1824, Ohio passed a law that common schools 
were to be supported by taxation, and this marked the real begin- 
ning of the common school system throughout the West. We 
soon find the school house and the church the two most im- 
portant edifices in every town and county. 
Zld. 1793, Eli Whitney. 

327. The application of the cotton-gin to the cleaning of cot- 
ton reduced the cost considerably, and made its cultivation prof- 
itable. The demand for cotton increased. To meet this demand, 
the planters increased the area of cultivation, extending the cot- 
ton-planting lands and carrying slavery with it to the southern 
part of the Mississippi Valley, and beyond the Mississippi River. 
The demand for good cotton land soon raised the values of the 
land, so that in 1818 an acre of land cost as much as $100. The 
sale of public lands to cotton planters during the same year 
amounted to more than $3,000,000, and the population of Alabama 
in 1819 was more than 70,000, one-third of whom were slaves. 

328. The North was opposed to slavery for humanitarian and for 
economic reasons. In the Northern States tlie institution of slav- 
ery had been found unprofitable, and had slowly but surely, even 
during colonial days, been done away with. In the South, it 
seemed economically necessary, and the number of slaves had in- 
creased, but the excesses in connection with the slave trade, and 
the ownership of slaves by many of the Southern planters and 
their managers in which the slaves were considered as so much 
chattel or property, the various steps taken to keep the slaves in 
utter ignorance, etc., the many laws passed against slaves, caused 
an outburst of feeling against slavery. 

329. Many anti-slavery societies had been formed since the 
adoption of the Constitution, and their activities resulted in the 
abolition of slavery in all the States north of the Mason and 
Dixon Line. The bill prohibiting the importation of slaves into 
the Union after January 1st, 1808, was passed with large majori- 
ties in the two houses of the national legislature. The Ordinance 
of 1787 prohibited slavery in the States to be formed from the 
Northwest Territory, and the Ohio River became the natural 
boundary line between slave and free states. 

330. The South needed slaves to till the soil, to cultivate the 
farms, to attend to the menial work in the cities and in the coun- 



136 American History. 

try sections. To the Southerner, the slave was an economic neces- 
sity, though many of the Southern planters themselves recognized 
the inhumanity of the institution. 

331. In 1819, Missouri applied for admission as a State. An ex- 
citing debate took place over the amendment proposing that no 
more slaves should be admitted into the State of Missouri, and 
that all children born within the State after its admission should 
be free after the age of twenty-five. Clay led the opposition to this, 
claiming that the Constitution did not give the House the right 
to legislate on this question, and that the evils of slavery would 
be lessened by allowing the institution to spread. The House 
passed the amendment, but the Senate defeated it. Thus matters 
rested, until Maine sought admission as a State, which bill was 
passed (December, 1819), but held up in the Senate until a com- 
promise could be effected. The compromise, known as the 
Missouri Compromise, provided that Missouri was to be ad- 
mitted as a slave State. In the remainder of the Louisiana 
Purchase Territory, slave states could be formed only in 
the territory south of the Mason and Dixon Line extension 
(36° 30' north latitude), and slavery should be prohibited in the 
States to be carved out of the territory north of that line. 
Both Maine and Missouri were then admitted as States. The 
proposed Constitution of ]\Iissouri contained a provision that 
prohibited free negroes from entering the State, but this was 
declared unconstitutional, (Art. IV, section 2, clause 1) and 
through the efforts of Clay, a compromise was effected elimi- 
nating this objectionable feature. 

332. The results of the Compromise were : It maintained the 
balance of States in the Senate. It recognized the authority of 
Congress to legislate on matters pertaining to slavery. It 
marked the natural boundary lines between slave and free 
States, as the Mason and Dixon Line, and the Ohio River. It 
brought forward prominently as an economic and industrial 
question, the institution of slavery. 

333. James Monroe, President, 1816-1824. 

334. The fusion of the political parties, evidenced by the 
re-election of Monroe in 1820, with the unanimous electoral 
vote less one. 

335. John Marshall was Chief Justice of the United States 



American History. 137 

Supreme Court from 1801 to 1835, and hi§ decisions are marked 
by an intense feeling for the superiority of the national govern- 
ment over that of the state government. Two cases are famous : 
McCulloch vs. Maryland (1819) which grew out of an attempt 
by the State of Maryland to tax a branch of the United States 
Bank at Baltimore. The decision in this case again emphasized 
the implied powers of Congress. In the Dartmouth College 
case, he declared the sacredness and binding power of a contract 
and emphasized the inability of a legislature to impair the 
obligations of a contract. 

336. The Province of Florida, lacking an efficient government, 
became a refuge for criminals, for the savage southern Indians, 
for fugitive negroes, and a place where plots against the United 
States could be hatched. Moreover, the Peninsula controlled a 
very important water route between the Eastern States and 
the American territory on the Gulf of Mexico. In 1818, General 
Andrew Jackson, in pursuit of a body of Seminole Indians 
who had attacked United States troops, invaded Florida, 
seized St. Marks and Pensacola, executed two British agents 
suspected of inciting the Indians, and placed the Province under 
the military control of the United States. In 1819 a treaty 
was effected between Spain and the United States by which 
Spain ceded Florida in payment of $5,000,000, the amount to be 
applied to claims of American citizens against Spain. 

337. The territory of Florida, security against depredations 
emanating from Florida, security against attack by a foreign 
nation from the South, control of the Florida Strait and the 
Gulf of Mexico, the fixing of the boundary line of the Louisiana 
Purchase to the exclusion of Texas, and the settlement of 
claims of Americans against Spain to the extent of the purchase 
price of Florida. 

338. One of the effects of the Napoleonic Conquest of Spain 
was the revolt of the dependencies of Spain in South America 
against the arbitrary rule of the Spanish officials. Argentina 
was the only State successful In securing its Independence. In 
1817, the revolts broke out again, and the States succeeded in 
driving out the power of Spain. Mexico became independent 
in 1821. Brazil also declared her Independence of Portugal. 
The spirit of revolt and of democracy In the New World so 



138 American History. 

impressed the monafchs of the Holy Christian Alliance, originally 
formed by Czar Alexander I of Russia, to govern according 
to the Principles of Christianity, that they (Austria, Russia, and 
Spain) agreed to render one another assistance in the destruc- 
tion of representative institutions in Europe. The King of 
Spain implored their assistance to punish the revolutionists in 
South America. Great Britain feared this would mean the 
closing of the South American ports to her ships, and she 
urged, through Canning, English Minister of Foreign Affairs, 
that the United States and England declare against any project 
of European powers to subjugate South American States. 
President Monroe had already recognized them as free States. 
Fearing that the demands made by Russia for the control of 
the Western Coast of North America as far south as 51° north 
latitude would endanger American interests on the Pacific, in 
his Annual IMessage to Congress in December 1823, President 
jMonroe enunciated what has become known as the Monroe 
Doctrine. This defined the policy of the United States as 
regards the relations between the European Powers and the 
American Nations. It is : "The American continents, . . . 
are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future 
colonization by European powers." "We should consider any 
attempt on their part (European powers) to extend their system 
to any portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace 
and safety." The United States would consider as an un- 
friendly act "the interposition by any European power for the 
purpose of oppressing the independent American governments 
or controlling in any other manner their destiny." The effect 
was instantaneous. Each nation disavowed any intention of 
unfriendliness, and, in 1825, a treaty was signed which fixed 
the southern limits of Russian territory in America as 54° 40'. 

The statement of the "Monroe Doctrine" marked the 
beginning of the control of the Western Hemisphere by the 
United States of America. As a result of it, the United 
States is in the position of guardian of the Spanish American 
States. We are morally bound to see that these governments 
are carried on in accordance with the political doctrines of the 
twentieth century, that their relations with the European nations 
are such as will not lead to disputes with those nations, and 



American History. 139 

that peace shall reign throughout those countries. In return 
we can feel assured that no European nation will venture to 
dispute the authority of the United States in the federation 
of western nations. In 1866, we compelled the withdrawal of 
French troops from Mexico ; in 1895, we compelled the arbitra- 
tion of the dispute of the Venezuela-British Guiana boundary 
line ; in 1898, we went to war with Spain, partly because of 
our position as "guardian" of the Western Hemisphere. 

339. The tariff legislation of 1824 hinged on the question of 
protection to the industries in America. The Western farmers 
and the manufacturers of the East won by a small majority 
against the combined vote of the shipping interests of the 
New England States and the Southern planters. The duties on 
cotton, woolen goods, hemp, and iron manufactures were in- 
creased. 

340. The Presidential election of 1824 is particularly notable 
for the organization of the present national nominating con- 
vention and the caucus before elections, and for the application 
of the constitutional provision on the election of the President 
by the House of Representatives. The candidates were : Andrew 
Jackson, John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, and William Henry 
Crawford. The count of electoral votes showed Jackson, 99 
votes ; Adams, 84 ; Crawford, 41 ; and Clay, Zl . Calhoun was 
chosen Vice President. Under the Constitution, (Amendment 
XII), the House of Representatives, the members voting by 
States, each State being entitled to only one vote, voted as 
follows: Adams, 13 States; Jackson, 7; Crawford, 4; making 
Adams, President. Clay, believing Adams to be the man best 
fitted for the office, cast his votes for Adams. This brought 
forth the cry of th Jackson adherents that Clay had been 
promised the office of Secretary of State, to which he was later 
appointed by Adams. 

341. The Tariff of 1828, called "the tariff of abominations," 
was passed in response to the demands made by the manufac- 
turers of cotton and woolen goods, as well as the producers of 
the raw materials, iron, hemp, wool, etc. Greater protection 
was demanded for the industries that had not thrived under 
the act of 1824. This tariff of 1828 was opposed by the South, 



140 American History. 

but particularly by South Carolina, whose Senator, John C. 
Calhoun, was its outspoken opponent. 

342. The South opposed this act because of the lowering of 
the prices on cotton with the increased demand for the staple, 
and because the cost of food and other products depended upon 
the prices fixed by the manufacturers in the North and West. 
In 1828, South Carolina adopted the "Exposition and Protest," 
drafted by Calhoun, embodying the same principles as those of 
the Kentucky Resolution. It restated and emphasized the 
principle of Nullification. 

343. Following the Missouri Compromise there set in a reac- 
tion against the spirit of nationalism, which had been preva- 
lent. This question was brought to an issue in the dispute over 
the lands vacated by the Creek Indians in Georgia, which Gov- 
ernor Troup of that State declared formed a part of Georgia 
territory. Congress would not support the stand taken by the 
President, and the Creek Indians surrendered the territory to 
the State of Georgia in 1828. 

344. The campaign of 1828, which resulted in the election of 
Andrew Jackson, was begun immediately after the election of 
Adams, in 1824. It marks the beginning of the two present 
political parties, the adherents of Adams taking the names of 
National Republicans, while the forces supporting Jackson be- 
came known as the Jackson Men or Democrats. It is also to 
be noted that the West and the South strongly supported 
Jackson, while Adams found his supporters mainly in New 
England. It also marks the breaking away of the people from 
the support for the Presidency and the Vice Presidency of men 
who belonged to the so-called "aristocratic and educated" class. 

345. The term Jacksonian Democracy is another name for the 
support given to Jackson in his campaign for the Presidency. 
It was indicative of "the triumph of Democratic principles, and 
an assertion of the people's right to govern themselves." To 
this support society, titles, distinction of any class or kind, 
were extremely distasteful. It was marked by a confidence 
in the ability of the common people to govern the country, 
and not to have the government centered in the hands of the 
educated and socially prominent people. 

346. With Jackson, we have introduced what is known as 



American History. 141 

the "Spoils System." The previous President had removed 
many officials of the opposing political party, but it remained 
for Jackson to make it a policy of his administration to punish 
those of the other party for their opposition to him and to 
reward those who worked in his behalf. Offices in the govern- 
ment were to be considered as rewards for partisan service. 
The previous Presidents retained a very large number of 
office holders who had proved themselves thoroughly acquainted 
with the duties of their office, and removed only those who had 
offended most flagrantly by their opposition, 

347. In pursuance of his policy to reward his followers, Jackson 
had appointed inferior men to the portfolios of the Cabinet. 
With the exception of Martin Van Buren, Secretary of State, 
they were not called into consultation by Jackson. His real 
advisers were his intimate political and social friends, who 
formed what was known as "the kitchen cabinet." 

348. The decade between 1830 and 1840 is marked by the 
invention of many labor-saving devices, thereby multiplying 
factories and increasing the output of manufactures. In 1836 
anthracite was first used successfully in the smelting of iron. 
Water-power was used to a greater extent. The number of 
cotton-factories and manufacturing towns increased manyfold. 
In 1834, Cyrus McCormick was granted a patent for the horse- 
driven reaper. The scale, Colt's revolver, and friction matches 
were invented, the use of gas for lighting streets and houses 
became more general. 

349. The building and completion of the Erie Canal gave 
New York an advantage that the other States in the East soon 
realized. In 1826, Pennsylvania began an extensive system of 
roads and canals to connect Philadelphia with Central New 
York, and with the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. The Chesa- 
peake Canal Company, organized in 1825 for the purpose of 
connecting Washington with the Ohio Valley was completed in 
1850. Between 1830 and 1840 the canal mileage was trebled, 
and there were almost 4,500 miles of canals in the United 
States. The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad was chartered in 1829, 
the cars being drawn by horses. In 1831, the first locomotive 
was used with a speed of twenty miles an hour. In 1835 there 



142 American History. 

were more than twenty railroads in operation, and five years 
later more than three thousand miles of tracks had been laid. 

350. The tendency in the South to incline more toward the 
State than toward the National Government came to a climax 
during this period. Its forum was the United States Senate. 
In an argument, Senator Hayne, of South Carolina, stated the 
theory of State Rights as expounded by Calhoun and other 
Southern leaders. In effect it was : That a State had the 
right to decide when the Federal Government had exceeded its 
powers, and because of this right, it could consider as null and 
void such act of the national Congress. His opponent was 
Daniel Webster of Massachusetts, who maintained that the 
National Act was superior to the State power, and denied the 
power of nullification to any State or States. 

The debate arose in the course of an attack made by the South- 
ern and the Western Senators under the lead of Senator Benton, 
on the amendment of Senator Foot (Conn.) to restrict the sale of 
' public lands on the easy terms prevailing. 

351. Nullification is the right or the ability of a State or 
States to consider as null and void and as not binding upon it, 
or upon them, a law passed by Congress. 

352. In 1832, Congress passed a new (protective) tariff act, 
one that was more moderate than the tariff act of 1828; yet one 
which was still opposed by South Carolina. The State Con- 
vention in that year passed the "Ordinance of Nullification," 
which declared the Tariff Acts of 1828 and of 1832 "null, void, 
and no law," and that their enforcement by the national govern- 
ment would cause the withdrawal of that State from the Union. 
The ordinance was to go into effect on February 1, 1833. 

353. Jackson ordered the collector at the port of Charleston 
to collect the duties on imports, and ordered General Scott to 
protect him in his duties. The famous "Nullification Proclama- 
tion" followed, which notified the people of South Carolina and 
of the United States that the laws of the United States would be 
enforced to the letter, and that the leaders of the movement 
would be held responsible and prosecuted for treason. The Civil 
War decided that the "United States is an indestructible union of 
indestructible States" and that a federal law cannot be nullified 
by any State. 



American History, ^ 143 

354. The question was settled peaceably after the passage by 
Congress, March 1, 1833, of the Force Bill, in which the Presi- 
dent was authorized to use the mihtary and naval forces of the 
United States in carrying out the laws. Calhoun, who had 
resigned from the Vice Presidency, was elected to the Senate, 
where he denounced the Force Bill, but the enactment of Clay's 
Compromise Tariff of 1833, (March 2, 1833) eased the situation. 
This provided for a gradual reduction of the duties for the 
next following nine years, at the end of which time the rate 
was not to exceed twenty percent. Two weeks later. South 
Carolina repealed the Nullification Ordinance. 

355. The policy of Jackson was to support the States in their 
claims against the Indians. He maintained that it was the 
province of the Indians to obey the State laws, or to move to 
the Indian Territory, set aside as a reservation for the Indian 
tribes in the East. The policy of the States and of the Presi- 
dent was in defiance of a mandate of the United States Supreme 
Court. The terrible Black Hawk (1832) and Seminole Wars 
(1835-42) were the outcome of this dispute. 

356. From 1828-1836. 

357. The Charter of the United States Bank was to expire in 
1836. In 1832, the Bank made appHcation for a renewal of its 
charter, which was opposed by Jackson. The Bank's friends 
opposed the re-election of Jackson. After a heated discussion, a 
bill renewing the charter was passed, but the President vetoed it 
on the grounds that it was a monopoly, that it was mismanaged, 
corrupt, controlled politics, was absolutely unsound and unconsti- 
tutional. Jackson's re-election made him determined to punish the 
Bank for its opposition to him, and, he accordingly ordered the 
Secretary of the Treasury, who was the official in whom the deposit 
of the funds was vested, to withdraw the funds from the United 
States Bank. The Secretary of Treasury, IMcLane, was opposed 
to this action, and was transferred to the Department of State; 
his successor refused, and he was removed. The new appointee. 
Roger B. Taney, gave the order for their removal and more 
than $10,000,000 were deposited in the "pet" State Banks, mostly 
in the West and the South, mainly because of their political 
influence rather than for their financial soundness. 

358. The withdrawal of such a large amount at one time from 



144 ' American History. 

the United States Bank caused that bank to call in its loans 
from and to the State Banks, with the result that these and 
the main bank itself made few or no loans to merchants, and 
others requiring capital. Money became scarce for loan pur- 
poses, while in the West the "pet banks" used the government 
funds for wild speculation. 

359. For his action in connection with the withdrawal of these 
funds and the consequent business depression the Senate adopted 
a resolution censuring Jackson. Jackson protested, but in vain. 
It was not until the early part of 1837 that the persistent efforts 
of his friend, Senator Benton, were rewarded with the adoption 
of the "Expunging Resolution," which ordered the striking out 
of the resolution of censure. 

360. It was during this time of excitement that the National 
Republicans, in their fight against the so-called tyrannical acts 
of President Jackson, assumed the name of Whigs, the name 
by which the patriotic Revolutionists of 1776 were known, and 
which was synonymous with opposition to arbitrary rule and 
government. 

361. As a result of the withdrawal of the government funds 
and their deposit in the "pet banks," wild speculation was in- 
dulged in. The banks in the East felt the stringency of funds, 
and could make no loans to legitimate business enterprises. 
Many of the State banks in the West were permitted to issue 
bank notes, which soon flooded the country, and depreciated 
considerably in value. There was a considerable rise in prices ; 
speculation became rife ; improvements on a vast scale were 
undertaken by the States on borrowed money; everybody seemed 
prosperous in the West and the South ; the specie circular of 
1836 was issued ; English merchants demanded payment for their 
exports, the English factories curtailed their output of cloths, 
less cotton was bought, and with the failure of the crops, the 
country was soon in the throes of one of the severest panics 
and depressions. 

362. Martin Van Buren, 1837-1841. 

363. During the years 1836 and 1837 the national government 
sold more than thirty-five millions of acres, in payment for a 
large part of which the Treasury accepted, contrary to law, 
the notes of irresponsible State banks. Congress failed to 



American History. 145 

adopt a resolution requiring the payment only in gold or in 
silver but the Secretary of the Treasury, on order of President 
Van Buren, issued a circular requiring all payments for lands 
from the national domains to be paid in gold or in silver, 
(January 11, 1836.) 

364. Normal business conditions were not restored until 1842. 
Van Buren resisted the appeals that the government aid the 
people and insisted that they must right matters themselves. 
Specie payment was resumed in 1838. The Independent Treas- 
ury System was established. By this, the funds of the national 
government were to be deposited in the Treasury at Washington, 
and in sub-treasuries throughout the United States under the 
charge and direction of government officials. 

365. The Abolitionists were those urging the abolition of the 
institution of slavery and the setting free of all the negro slaves in 
the United States. Benjamin Lundy, (Genius of Universal 
Emancipation was the name of his newspaper), William Lloyd 
Garrison (The Liberator) John Greenleaf Whittier, Wendell 
PhilHps, Theodore Parker, Elijah P. Lovejoy, William Ellery 
Channing, Salmon P. Chase, the New England Anti-Slavery 
Society, the American Anti-Slavery Society, Lucretia Mott and 
Lydia Maria Child. 

366. While it is true that the South as a whole maintained 
the justice and righteousness of the institution of slavery, not 
only as a social, but also as an economic necessity, there were 
a large number of people who thought it a vicious institution 
and favored its gradual abolition. However, the uprising of the 
slaves under Nat Turner, in 1831, in Virginia, in which more 
than sixty whites were killed, turned their attention to the con- 
ditions that might follow if the negro became a free man. The 
feeling against the liberation of the slaves was more intense than 
ever, and the Abolitionists were blamed for this bloody uprising. 
The keen sectional feeling became stronger than ever. 

367. It was not until the session of 1835-1836 that this feeling 
was seen in its strength. Petitions from Quakers had been re- 
ceived by Congress, read, and referred to the Committee on Dis- 
trict of Columbia, by which they were pigeon-holed. In 1836 
Representative (former President) John Quincy Adams pre- 
sented a petition for the abolition of slavery in the District of 



146 American History. 

Columbia, and asked that it be acted upon, The Southern mem- 
bers succeeded in passing the gag resolution which provided that 
petitions and bills relating to slavery should be laid on the table. 
It was not until 1844 that the resolution was repealed. 

368. The Liberty party was the party of the Abolitionists, in 
1840, which nominated James G. Birney for President. The vote 
received by him was insignificant, but the party became a force in 
the next two Presidential elections. 

369. The "Loco-focos," named after the matches of the time 
because of an incident in which the matches appeared in the con- 
vention in New York City, were the Democrats who supported 
Van Buren for President. The term was later applied to the 
Democratic party. 

370. "Tippecanoe" was the nickname of the candidate, General 
William Henry Harrison, because of his success in the battle of 
Tippecanoe against the Indians in 1811. General John Tyler, a 
former adherent of Calhoun, of Virginia, was his running mate 
for the Vice-Presidency. 

371. In 1850, by the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, the United 
States and Great Britain agreed to renounce the right to acquire 
independent control of any isthmian canal route. In 1901 Sec- 
retary of State Hay negotiated the abrogation of the treaty in 
so far as it related to the exclusive control of an isthmian canal 
route, and the United States was free to proceed with the build- 
ing of a canal. This led to the building of the Panama Canal, 
which is now under the exclusive control of the United States. 

372. The Anti-Rent troubles in New York State, 1839-1846, 
led to the abolition of all feudal tenures still remaining from 
colonial days. Riots on the various patroonship lands were fre- 
quent, until the Constitutional Convention of 1846 declared 
against the existing leasehold system. This and the Dorr Re- 
bellion were evidences of this spirit of reform. 

2)72). Dorr's Rebellion led to the adoption of a revised Consti- 
tution in Rhode Island, which provided, among other things, for 
a new definition of "freeman," removing the property restriction. 
Dorr was the candidate of the People's Party, which adopted 
a more liberal Constitution than the old colonial charter still in 
force at the time. Opposed by the mass of the people and the 
National Government in his attempts to seize the State property, 



American History. 147 

he was arrested, tried for treason, and imprisoned. But the 
rebellion achieved its purpose. 

374. With the increased demand for cotton and for slave 
States in order to maintain the balance in the upper Senate, the 
number of Americans, particularly Southerners, settling in Texas 
increased until the Mexicans became afraid of their numbers 
and influence and passed restrictive laws. With this as a pre- 
text, the Texans fomented a revolution, and after severe fight- 
ing, in which they were aided by thousands of American citizens, 
Texas gained her independence from Mexico and became a free 
and independent State. The Treaty of 1819, which provided for 
the purchase of Florida by the United States, settled the western 
boundary of the United States and Spanish territory, by which 
the United States surrendered all claims t.o Texan territory. 

375. See answers 374 and Zll . The State emblem of Texas has 
a single star on a plain background. 

Zld. James K. Polk, Democratic Party; James G. Birney, 
Liberty Party ; Henry Clay, Whig Party. 

Zn. There was considerable opposition, mainly in the North, 
against the annexation of the State of Texas, though the large 
number of American inhabitants really made it a State of the 
United States. Van Buren lost the renomination for the Presi- 
dency because of his opposition to the annexation ; Clay hesitated 
to declare himself until the eleventh hour, and even President 
Tyler hesitated to favor it. From the time that Texas secured 
her independence as a result of General Houston's success at 
San Jacinto, in 1836, she remained a free State. With the elec- 
tion of Polk as President on a platform favoring the annexation 
of Texas, President Tyler in his message to Congress, December, 
1844, urged the consideration of the matter. 

The bill authorizing the annexation provided for the admission 
of Texas as a State, and that four States might be formed from 
its vast domains with the consent of the inhabitants of the State 
of Texas. There was to be no slavery in such States north of 
36° 30'. The acceptance of these conditions by Texas was im- 
mediate. 

378. 1844 is noted for the invention of the telegraph through 
the labors of Alfred Vail and Samuel F. B. Morse. 

379. Spain had relinquished all her rights to territory north 



148 American History. 

of parallel 42 degrees. The Treaty of 1825 between Russia and 
the United States fixed the boundary line of Russian territory 
as 54° 40'. By the treaties between Great Britain and the United 
States (1818 and 1828) the Oregon territory was occupied jointly. 
The Americans claimed the territory on the grounds of discovery 
by Captain Gray (see answer 283), the explorations of the Lewis 
and Clark expedition, and the occupancy by the fur traders at 
Astoria and other places. The claims of the British were sup- 
ported by the explorations of Sir Francis Drake and the fur- 
trading activity of the Hudson Bay Company. The increasing 
population brought the situation once more before the public, and 
the cry in the campaign of 1844 was ''54° 40' or fight." The 
matter was settled by a treaty fixing the northern boundary of 
the United States west of the Great Lakes as the parallel of 49 
degrees. 

380. The program of President Polk was : (a) The settlement 
of the Oregon question; (b) a reduction in the tariff; (c) the 
acquisition of California, and (d) the re-establishment of the 
Independent Treasury. These were settled as follows : (a) A 
treaty was arranged between Great Britain and the United States 
fixing the boundary line between Canada and the United States 
at 49 degrees, (b) The revised tariff measure, becoming a law 
in 1846, provided for the taxation of luxuries at from 40 to 100 
per cent., and iron, wool, and ordinary manufactures at an aver- 
age of 30 per cent. ; the free list was considerably extended. This 
tariff act remained law for a period of ten years, (c) California 
was acquired as a result of the Mexican War. (d) The Inde- 
pendent Treasury system, abolished during President Tyler's 
term, was restored on August 6, 1846. 

381. From all known facts, there was no real reason for the 
United States declaring war against Mexico. The pressure ex- 
erted by the Southern States in order to acquire a greater ter- 
ritory for slavery, the demand of the West and the South for 
the territory of California, and the excuse, that Mexico had but 
partly met the claims of American citizens for property that had 
been taken or destroyed, were the causes that brought on the 
war. On the other hand, Mexico had righteous cause for anger 
against the United States because of the aid given to the Texans 
in their war for freedom against Mexico. 



American History. 149 

382. Mexico recalled her Minister from Washington in March 
1845. In December, 1846, President Polk signed the bill admit- 
ting Texas as a State. General Taylor had been sent to the Nueces 
River in order to preserve peace, as Mexico had announced that 
annexation of Texas would be considered by her an act of v^ar. 
The question of boundary line between Texas and Mexico was 
the real cause, the United States claiming the Rio Grande, and 
Mexico claiming the Nueces River. John SHdell had been sent 
as a commissioner to negotiate for the purchase of the Mexican 
territory in what is now the United States, but Slidell was not 
received by the Mexicans. A clash between the troops in the 
River Rio Grande region was the real act of war. 

383. In Mexico, the following battles were fought : Palo Alto, 
Resaca de la Palma, Monterey and Buena Vista, in which the 
Americans under General Taylor were victorious. Captured by 
General Scott — Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, Contreras, Chapultepec, 
and City of Mexico. 

384. Shortly after the opening of the war, President Polk 
asked for $2,000,000, in order to negotiate a treaty of peace 
with Mexico. As an amendment to the bill appropriating this 
amount, David Wilmot, of New York, provided "that neither 
slavery nor involuntary servitude shall ever exist in any terri- 
tory acquired from Mexico." The Senate defeated the measure. 
The question was again brought up, but failed of passage. This 
marks the beginning of the question of prevention of the spread 
of slavery in any acquired territory. 

385. In 1846, Commodore Stockton and John C. Fremont, who 
were exploring the routes to Oregon, acting together, captured 
the leading towns of California. During the same year, Colonel 
Kearney completed the conquest of the territory south of Oregon 
by capturing Santa Fe, New Mexico. 

386. The treaty of peace, signed at Guadalupe-Hidalgo, shortly 
after the capture of Mexico City, provided that Mexico should 
relinquish all claims to the territory north of the border of New 
Mexico, and that the boundary line should extend to the Gila 
River, thence to the Colorado, and West to the Pacific Ocean. 
The United States was to pay Mexico the sum of $15,000,000, 
but $3,000,000 were to be deducted from this sum to pay the 
claims of the Americans against Mexico. 



150 American History. 

387. The question of the extension of slavery to the newly- 
acquired territory, the extension of the Mason boundary line of 
36 degrees 30 minutes, the Wilmot Proviso, the doctrine of 
"popular sovereignty" of Senator Lewis Cass, and of Stephen 
Douglas, became important political questions of the day. 

388. The Whigs nominated a Southern planter, General Tay- 
lor, of Mexican War fame ; the Democrats nominated a Northern 
non-slaveholder, Senator Lewis Cass ; the Free-Soil Party nomi- 
nated Martin Van Buren. 

389. The slavery question still remained the prominent ques- 
tion, and was made all the more prominent because of the ter- 
ritory that had been ceded by Mexico to the United States, lead- 
ing to the Compromise of 1850 and the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 
1854. 

390. In January 24, 1848, gold was discovered in the Sacra- 
mento Valley. Within a short time after the news leaked out 
the population was increased by almost 80,000 who had come 
from the East across the wild West, by way of the Horn, or by 
way of the Isthmus of Panama and ship to San Francisco. The 
law governing the miners was the constitution drawn up in the 
convention of September, 1849, in which slavery was prohibited. 
Application was soon after made to Congress for full recognition 
as a State. 

391. The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, signed in 1850, followed as 
a result of the demand for the Nicaragua route for a canal to 
compete with that of the French across the Isthmus of Panama. 
It was stipulated that neither nation should obtain exclusive con- 
trol of the Nicaragua route, that neither should colonize or con- 
trol any of the Central American States, and that they would 
extend their protection to other practicable communications 
across the Isthmus. This treaty was amended before the Pana- 
ma Canal could be built by the United States. 

392. With the admission of Florida and Texas (1845), Iowa 
(1846) and Wisconsin, (1848), the balance between the slave and 
the free States was maintained. If California were to be ad- 
mitted as a free State then the balance would be in favor of the 
North or free section, which the Southern States were deter- 
mined to resist. The admission of California as a free State 
passed the House of Representatives without difficulty, but in 



American History, 151 

the Senate the contest was long and bitter. Clay, the Great 
Pacificator, again a member of the Senate, played the role of 
mediator and largely as a result of his efforts the following 
measures were adopted as a compromise: (a) CaHfornia was 
admitted as a free State; (b) New Mexico and Utah were or- 
ganized as Territories, with the question of slavery left for dis- 
cussion when they applied for admission as States ; (c) Texas 
was paid $10,000,000 for the surrender of her claim to any land 
in the New Mexican Territory; (d) A Fugitive Slave Law, sat- 
isfactory to the South was passed; (e) Slave trade in the Dis- 
trict of Columbia was abolished. These five measures, two in 
favor of the North, two in favor of the South, and the other 
partly satisfying each section, were embodied in one measure 
known as the Omnibus Bill. This measure was most ably sup- 
ported by Daniel Webster in his famous ''Seventh-of-March 
speech," but the measure was opposed by the Abolitionists, among 
whom Senator William H. Seward of New York, and Salmon P. 
Chase of Ohio, were the leaders. The Omnibus Bill was de- 
feated, but the separate measures were passed. 

393. The passage of the Compromise measures brought a 
temporary peace to the factions. At no time had there been more 
outspoken threats of secession and disunion. 

394. The Fugitive Slave Law, a measure favorable to the 
South, incurred the hostihty of the Northern States, because of 
its summary provisions. The act provided that the testimony 
of a slave was not to be considered, jury trial was denied to 
him, and the assistance of citizens could be invoked in arresting 
runaway fugitive slaves. In many of the Northern States the 
enforcement of the law was forcibly resisted, and free negroes 
and whites banded together to impede the Southerners in their 
attempts to recover slaves. 

395. The Personal Liberty Laws were passed in many of 
the Northern States in order to offset the working of the Fugi- 
tive Slave law. The laws prevented the imprisonment of slaves, 
imposed heavy penalties upon those aiding in the recovery or 
arrest of runaway slaves, provided counsel for the defence of 
slaves, and in every way, attempted to obstruct the Federal law. 

396. One means of preventing the return of slaves to their 
former owners was by means of the "Underground Railway," 



152 American History. 

or "Underground Railroad," which was a system by which fugi- 
tive slaves were concealed during the day at different "stations," 
and under cover of night were transported on their way to 
Canada. The leading "terminals" were Buffalo, Cleveland and 
Detroit. There were more than two thousand "conductors" in 
Ohio, and it is estimated that during the year 1850-1851, more 
than twenty-five hundred negroes were assisted to freedom. 

397. No one ever did more to consohdate the feeling in the 
North against the vicious features of the institution of slavery 
than did the pubHcation of the book, "Uncle Tom's Cabin," writ- 
ten by Harriet Beecher Stowe, as a protest against slavery. It 
pictures the incidents in the life of slaves on the plantation, and 
in their attempt to run away and escape to freedom. 

398. The election of 1852 resulted in the choice of Franklin 
Pierce, of New Hampshire, an unknown Democrat whose views 
were but little known. The known Democratic leaders like Cass, 
Buchanan and Douglas were passed over because of the in- 
tensity of feeling. The Repubhcan candidate was General Win- 
field Scott, of Mexican War fame. The Free-Soil Party (Free 
Democratic Party) nominated John Hale, of New Hampshire. 

399. In the light of the modern development of the South, 
slavery was not at all necessary, even though it was considered 
as absolutely necessary in pre-Civil War days. Negro labor was 
always unskilled, and, therefore, cheap labor, which at all times, 
is dear labor. In 1850, there were about three and a quarter 
millions of slaves in the South, owned by 350,000 planters and 
others. Half of these slave-holders owned fewer than five 
slaves each. The ownership of this vast number of slaves, a 
population almost equal to the total population of the Revolu- 
tionary period, resulted in the maintenance of the "poor white," 
or "white trash" element, about 2,500,000 in number, who owned 
no slaves and were forced to exist, as best they could, on their 
worn-out and waste lands. In addition to the keeping up of the 
large class of poor whites, very few of the most valuable immi- 
grant stock from Europe went to the South, where the oppor- 
tunities were much limited because of slavery. These immi- 
grants went to the Northern or the Western States, where they 
developed into excellent American citizens. 

400. The slavery question soon came to the front. It was 



American History. 153 

hoped that the provisions of the Compromise of 1850 would rule, 
and there would be peace between the North and the South. 
Senator Douglas, of Illinois, Chairman of the Committee on 
Territories, reported a bill for the organization of the Territory 
of Nebraska. The question of slavery, regardless of the Mis- 
souri Compromise, was to be left to the citizens of the State to 
be decided at the time of their adoption of the Constitution. 
Douglas, as a citizen of the West, was a firm believer in the 
doctrine of self-government or "Squatter Sovereignty," and 
favored the decision of this question by the citizens of the State 
themselves. On the 23rd of January, 1854, he introduced a bill 
providing for the organization of the two territories of Kansas 
and Nebraska and included the provision of "popular sovereign- 
ty." The debate on this became strong and warm, and the 
leaders of both sides took active part. The bill became a law, 
the vote in the House being very close, while the vote in the 
Senate was 7)1 to 14 in its favor. 

401. Opposing the bill were: Senators Seward, Chase, Charles 
Sumner, Benjamin Wade, Edward Everett. Favoring the bill: 
Senator Douglas and the Southern Senators. 

402. Tlie Act did not enumerate the time of the submission of 
the Constitution of either territory. Accordingly each side 
began to send immigrants in order to make sure of a majority 
vote in its favor. In the North, the New England Emigrant Aid 
Company encouraged anti-slave emigrants by furnishing them 
with tickets at reduced rates, and in many cases with free trans- 
portation. By the end of the year 1855, the Company had sent 
to Kansas more than 4,000 persons. The day of the election 
of delegates to the Territorial Convention came round, when 
5,000 armed Missourians, "border ruffians," forcibly took posses- 
sion of the polls and carried the election, by casting three-fourths 
of the votes in favor of pro-slavery delegates. The Constitution 
thus adopted by them was naturally pro-slavery, with stringent 
provisions for the punishment of those favoring the abolition of 
slavery in the State. There were fewer than 200 slaves in the 
territory at that time. The Free State party ignored the Terri- 
torial Convention, called a convention at Topeka (Oct. 23, 1855), 
and drafted a Constitution in which slavery was prohibited. 
The legislature was elected, and application was made for ad- 



154 American History. 

mittance into the Union. For months riot, bloodshed, and 
deeds of violence ensued, in which both factions took part, and 
two hundred lives were lost. The Free State party finally won 
and order was secured. "Popular sovereignty" as a doctrine 
proved a complete failure. 

403. In the attempt to restore cordial relations with Mexico, 
the United States, realizing the injustice of the seizure of the 
land from Mexico, made partial restitution in the purchase of 
the comparatively small strip of land, known as the Gadsden 
Purchase, for the sum of $10,000,000, and the boundary line be- 
tween the United States and Mexico was definitely settled. 

404. Cuba had for years been ruled tyrannically by the Spanish 
and there arose a demand that the United States purchase the 
Island from Spain, negotiations for which the government of 
Spain spurned. Following the attack of the mob in New Or- 
leans on the Spanish consulate, the United States apologized 
and paid an indemnity for the destruction of Spanish property. 
An American vessel was seized in Havana harbor on the grounds 
that it aided the malcontents on the Island. The American Min- 
isters to Great Britain, France, and Spain, conferring at Ostend, 
issued the "Ostend Manifesto,' in which they stated that it was 
the duty of the United States to take possession of the Island 
forcibly if Spain did not sell it. The United States disavowed 
the Manifesto. 

405. The passing of the Kansas-Nebraska Act resulted in the 
uniting of all the forces opposed to slavery. The Republican 
party was organized in the Northwest, where the political ties 
were less binding and less strong than in the East. In July, 1854, 
at Jackson, Michigan, a convention of delegates from the Whigs, 
Free-Soilers, anti-Nebraska Democrats and others met and or- 
ganized the Republican party. From the beginning the new 
party Wcis remarkably successful. 

406. The American Party determined that no foreign-born 
citizen should be elected to office, and held its meetings in secret. 
Members, questioned as to the doings or the purposes of their 
party, replied, "I don't know," which affixed to them the name 
of "Know-Nothings." In 1856, this party elected more than a 
majority of the members of the House of Representatives. 

407. The Know-Nothings nominated Millard Fillmore; the 



American History. 155 

Democrats, James Buchanan; the Republicans, John C. Fremont. 
The Democratic candidate, James Buchanan, was elected after 
one of the most exciting campaigns. 

408. The cheapness of the land, the fertility of the soil, the 
improved means of transportation, the freedom of the West, the 
troublous times and conditions in Europe, (Revolutions of 1848), 
the discovery of the precious minerals. 

409. (a) The increase in the population of the West led to the 
development of the means of transportation. The railroad mile- 
age was tripled, the national government encouraged railroading 
by giving extensive grants of lands, the organization of the 
"trunk" systems was begun in the consolidation of several small 
railroad companies, (b) The American merchant marine, com- 
prising many of the fastest sailing vessels, was the equal of that 
of any other nation on the globe. Three-fourths of the exports 
and imports of the United States were carried in American bot- 
toms, and the government aided the many steamship companies 
with subsidies. The principal exports were, as at present, flour, 
provisions, cotton, manufactures of iron and steel. American ships 
with American crews were seen in every quarter of the globe. 

410. (a) During the decade between 1850 and 1860, the Patent 
Office issued more than three times the number of patents given 
out in the previous decade. The fire-alarm system was invented 
in 1852; the first successful fire engine, in 1853; the harvester by 
McCormick, in 1854; the vulcanization of rubber by Charles 
Goodyear, 1844; Elias Howe invented the sewing machine in 
1846; Hoe invented his revolving cylinder press in 1847, and the 
discovery of sulphuric ether as an anesthetic was made by Drs. 
Morton and Jackson, (b) With the aid of the inventions, manu- 
facturing increased most rapidly, so that the manufactures in 
1860 amounted to more than two billions of dollars. Pittsburgh 
became the steel center, the iron mines in Michigan were being 
exploited, the number of spindles in the cotton mills had in- 
creased more than five times, the manufacture of woolen cloths, 
cotton goods, clothing of all kinds, from fifty to more than two 
hundred and fifty per cent. 

411. The slavery question again became prominent in 1857, 
when a decision was rendered by the United States Supreme 
Court in the matter of Dred Scott, a negro. Several years be- 



156 American History. 

fore, Scott had been taken by his master to Illinois, in the north- 
ern part of the Louisiana Purchase Territory. After his return 
to Missouri, Scott sued for his freedom, claiming that 
residence in a free State made him free. The case 
was carried through the State courts to the Federal 
courts, and the Chief Justice, Roger B. Tane: rendered 
the decision for the court: (1) That Scott had not become free; 

(2) that slaves constituted property of the person owning them; 

(3) that Congress had no right to legislate on property of this 
kind, and the Missouri Compromise was void. 

412. The Dred Scott decision gave the South the utmost satis- 
faction, because it decided practically everything their way, and 
further insured favorable Federal court action in any legal ques- 
tions of slavery. On the North the effect was just the opposite. 
It united all factions opposed to slavery more strongly than ever; 
it led to the stricter enforcement of the Personal Liberty Laws, 
and to the greater use of the Underground Railroad System. 

413. The slavery controversy was still unsettled in Kansas. 
The emigration of people from the South and the North con- 
tinued unabated, but the Free State party was stronger than ever. 
The Topeka Constitution adopted by them was anti-slavery. 
The Lecompton Constitution was the Constitution which sanc- 
tioned slavery. The members of the Free State party had refused 
to vote for the delegates to a constitutional convention, and con- 
sequently the convention that met at Lecompton in 1857 was 
pro-slavery. The Constitution sanctioned the "right of property 
in slaves" and prohibited any interference with slavery in the 
territory as it then existed. 

414. A successor to Senator Douglas was to be elected. Doug*- 
las wished to succeed himself, and found as an opponent Abra- 
ham Lincoln, then a member of the Illinois Legislature. Confi- 
dent of the justice of his cause, Lincoln challenged Douglas to 
a series of debates. Seven places were chosen where debates 
were to be held. These debates possess a significance that has 
not been truly estimated. They were the forerunners of the 
popular election of United States Senators. The appeal of these 
two candidates, to be elected by the State Legislature, was made 
directly to the voters, who, by their votes, were to influence the 
ultimate choice of the United States Senator. They made Lincoln 



American History. 157 

the logical candidate for the Presidency on the Republican ticket, 
and they brought defeat to Douglas in later years by splitting the 
Democratic Party. They presented the question of the abolition 
of slavery^ to the nation as the question had never before been 
s-^ated, an ■ made countless adherents to the Republican cause. 

415. Tho<:,''house against itself" doctrine of Lincoln can be best 
stated in his own words : "In my opinion, it will not cease until 
a crisis has been reached and passed. 'A house divided against 
itself cannot stand.' I believe this government cannot endure 
permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union 
to be dissolved — I do not expect the house to fall, but I do 
expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing 
or all the other. Either the opponents of slavery will arrest 
the further spread of it, . . . or its advocates will push it 
forward till it shall become alike lawful in all the States, old 
as well as new — North as well as South." 

416. Douglas's "Freeport Doctrine" was enunciated in reply to 
a question of Lincoln's as to whether the people of a Territory 
could "in any lawful way" exclude slavery from its limits be- 
fore admission. He replied that the Legislature of a Territory 
might, by legislation unfriendly to slavery, prevent the introduc- 
tion of slavery. This was contrary to the Dred Scott decision, 
and he lost the support of the Southern Democracy. 

417. The election of 1858 portended the defeat of the Demo- 
cratic Party in the North. Senator Douglas was the only North- 
ern Democrat elected to the Senate, while the House elected a 
Republican Speaker. The struggle between slavery and anti- 
slavery was soon to be joined. 

418. John Brown had been one of the Free State leaders in 
the Kansas struggles, and was obsessed with the idea of forcible 
liberation of the slaves. With twenty-two followers, he seized 
the arsenal at Harper's Ferry, Virginia (October 16, 1859), and 
aroused the entire country. His plan was to begin the liberation 
of slaves by forcing slaveholders to give up their slaves. His 
force was attacked, and he was taken prisoner, tried, and exe- 
cuted. 

419. The Democratic Convention met in Charleston (April 23, 
1860), with a majority in favor of Douglas for President. -The 
question of slavery in the platform became the center of discus- 



158 American History. 

sion, and the Southern delegates wanted a declaration protecting 
slavery, while the Northern delegates refused to go farther than 
to pledge support to the Dred Scott decision, an indefinite state- 
ment which left them to favor squatter or popular sovereignty. 
Most of the Southerners thereupon withdrew, and the conven- 
tion adjourned to Baltimore, from which convention the South- 
erners withdrew to their own convention. 

420. Abraham Lincoln was the candidate of the Republican 
Party; Stephen Douglas, of the Democratic Party; John C. 
Breckenridge, of the Southern Democratic Party; John Bell, 
of the Constitutional Union Party, composed of the few remain- 
ing Whigs, the Know-Nothings, etc. Abraham Lincoln and Han- 
nibal Hamlin were elected President and Vice-President, re- 
spectively, securing 180 votes, to 72 for Breckenridge, 39 for 
Bell, and 12 for Douglas. The popular vote was: Lincoln, 
1,870,452; Douglas, 1,376,957; Breckenridge, 849,781; Bell, 
588,879. The keynotes of the platforms were : Republican — the 
prohibition of slavery in all territori.es of the United States ; South- 
ern Democrats — the protection of slavery in the territories ; North- 
ern Democrats — the maintenance of the doctrine of squatter sov- 
ereignty; Constitutional Union Party — "The Constitution, the 
Union, and the enforcement of the laws." 

421. When the election of the Republican candidates was an- 
nounced the Southern States threatened to secede from the 
Union. President Buchanan, under the influence of Southern 
sympathizers, did not assume a firm attitude against this threat- 
ened break-up of the Union, but in his message to Congress he 
denied the right of the Southern States to secede. His attitude 
was vacillating. H he had been firm there is no doubt that the 
Southern States would not have seceded so soon after the election 
of Lincoln. 

THE CIVIL WAR 

422. A convention called by the Legislature of South Caro- 
lina (December 20, 1860) repealed the resolution which ratified 
the Constitution in 1788, and declared that the State was again 
a "free and independent nation." Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, 
Georgia, Louisiana and Texas followed in close succession. 



American History. 159 

With secession determined upon, the Southern States imme- 
diately seized the forts, arsenals, and other government property 
within those States. Only four forts remained in the hands of 
the North : in Charleston harbor, at Key West, at Tortuga, at 
Pensacola. At the same time the Southern States took steps to 
protect themselves against attack by the Federal Government. 

423. The grievances of the South were : That the Northern 
States had nullified the Fugitive Slave Law by passing the Per- 
sonal Liberty Laws, (b) That the Northern States had violated 
the spirit of the Constitution in that they harbored the Aboli- 
tionists, made no laws preventing the spread of the Abolition 
movement, and elected an avowed Abolitionist to the Presidency, 
(c) That the South did not have the equal rights guaranteed 
by the Constitution. 

424. The Republicans replied : (a) That the slavery question 
was subject to the decision of the majority, (b) That the Re- 
pubhcans had no intention to interfere with slavery in any State. 
But that the Federal Government, through a majority, had the 
right to prevent the spread of slavery, or pass any such laws 
that the majority deemed necessary to prevent its spread. 

425. The reasons for the secession of the Confederate States 
are found in the Ordinance of Secession of the South Carolina 
Convention, based on the doctrines and speeches of John C. Cal- 
houn. They are : (a) By the Declaration of Independence, each 
State became a free and independent nation. (b) That under 
the Articles of Confederation, each State retained its "sover- 
eignty, freedom, and independence." (c) That the adoption of 
the Constitution was merely the signing of a compact of free 
and independent States, making the Federal Government merely 
the agent of these States with granted powers, (d) That since 
the Federal Government did not live up to its part of the com- 
pact, the other contracting party was free to withdraw. 

426. Lincoln, as leader of the Republican Party, replied in his 
First Inaugural Address, (a) The Union is older and stronger 
than the Constitution, (b) That the Constitution made the Union 
"more perfect." (c)- "Perpetuity is implied, if not expressed, in 
the fundamental law of all national governments. It is safe to 
say that no government proper ever had a provision in its organic 



160 American History. 

law for its own termination." (d) All of the contracting parties 
were necessary to dissolve and nullify the contract expressed or 
implied in the Constitution. No State could, therefore, on its 
own free will withdraw from the Union. 

427. On February 4, 1861, the delegates from the seven seced- 
ing States met at Montgomery, Alabama, and drew up a pro- 
visional constitution for the "Confederate States of America." 
Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, and Alexander Stephens, of 
Georgia, originally opposed to secession, were elected President 
and Vice President of the Confederacy. The Constitution of the 
Confederacy was based on the Constitution of the United States, 
and included provisions covering all those questions that had at 
one time or another been raised by the Southern Legislators in 
behalf of the South. 

428. A confederacy is a union of States in which each State 
retains its sovereignty, and merely surrenders certain powers 
for the common good. In a federal government, the States have 
relinquished their sovereignty to the Federal Government, but 
have retained a few rights and powers. In the Federal Govern- 
ment the union is supreme, while in the former the constituent 
governments have the right to withdraw. The Federal Govern- 
ment, in the words of the Supreme Court of the United States, 
is "an indestructible union of indestructible States." 

429. Attempts were made to conciliate the Southern States. 
From February 4 to 27, 1861, a Peace Conference was held in 
Washington, with ex-President Tyler as its Chairman, and dele- 
gates from fourteen free States and seven slave-holding States. 
Recommendations were made for a constitutional amendment, 
which was to prohibit Congress from interfering with slavery in 
any State; for a bill organizing Colorado, Nevada, and Dakota, 
without reference to the slavery question. 

These concessions were not accepted by the Southern leaders 
who wanted greater privileges, as few of the Southerners be- 
lieved that the North would resort to arms to compel the South- 
ern States to remain in the Union. 

430. From the time of his election to his inauguration, Lincoln 
was watching events very closely and writing his inaugural 
address. Because of threats made on his life, Lincoln travelled 
in disguise to Washington. His inaugural address was one of the 



American History. 161 

most important papers written by a President. It stated his 
supreme aim to save the Union, that he would not interfere with 
slavery where it existed, and that he would preserve the per- 
petuity of the Union. 

431. WilHam H. Seward, Secretary of State ; Salmon P. Chase, 
Secretary of the Treasury ; Gideon Welles, Secretary of the 
Navy; Edwin M. Stanton, Secretary of War. 

432. An attempt was made to relieve Fort Sumter, in Charles- 
ton harbor, by sending provisions and supplies in a merchant 
vessel, but the guns of Fort Moultrie compelled the boat to re- 
turn. Lincoln finally determined that an expedition should go 
to its aid from New York. The Southerners decided to reduce 
the Fort before this aid could arrive. The garrison withstood 
the attack for about thirty-six hours, when they capitulated. 

The firing upon Fort Sumter unified the North in their deter- 
mination to compel the return of the seceding States to the 
Union. The South was greatly encouraged by its first success. 
President Lincoln issued a call for 75,000 volunteers, and the 
South responded with the secession of Virginia, Tennessee, 
Arkansas and North Carolina. 

433. The North had a much larger population than the South; 
nine millions to three and a half millions of people. The North 
was very much richer than the South. The North was an indus- 
trial and manufacturing section, and was supported by the agri- 
cultural West, while the South was almost entirely an agricul- 
tural region. The North was put to the disadvantage of being 
on the offensive, while the South was on the defensive, with a 
perfect knowledge of the territory. The North was practically 
independent of foreign nations for supplies, while the South was 
absolutely dependent upon other sections or countries for its 
most urgent supplies. The South had an advantage in that most 
of its youth and men could handle the gun readily; that the 
Southern youth had been trained in the military schools and 
academies, and that they were natural leaders. The North had 
the advantage that with its large fleet of vessels it could effec- 
tively blockade the Southern ports. The North had the tradition 
of an established government. 

434. The source of military supplies of the Confederacy was 
the European countries, and the markets for the products of the 



162 American History. 

South were in those same countries. By enforcing a strict 
blockade the South would be cut off from Europe, would be 
short of the essentials of warfare, and would have to find her 
supplies within her own bounds ; her credit would be impaired, 
and she could hope for but little assistance from her friends in 
Europe. 

On the outbreak of the war the Confederacy issued to owners 
of vessels letters of marque, thereby making them minor war 
vessels. President Lincoln's reply to this, in order to restrict 
the importation of supplies by the South, declared the coast 
of the Southern States to be in a state of blockade. Fleet war 
vessels were stationed outside of the ports ; all materials, mer- 
chandise or goods that went to another country but were ulti- 
mately destined for the Confederate States were also declared 
contraband. No cotton could be sold to foreign countries, and 
no manufactured articles, arms, etc., could be imported into the 
Southern States. The foreign credit of the Confederate States 
was practically destroyed. 

435. The European nations were dependent upon the Southern 
States for cotton and other products, and they declared the Con- 
federate States to be belligerents, that is, not in insurrection 
against the United States, but as equal antagonists in a state 
of war. This meant that they would obey the ordinary rules 
governing neutral nations in their relations with both sections, 
and that they both could carry on trade with England, that ships 
would be fitted out, etc., in the English ports. This was ex- 
tremely favorable to the South. Vessels from the South were 
entitled to the same recognition as vessels from the United 
States or any other nation. 

436. The French Government aided the cause of the South, 
but the Russian Government refused to join in a recognition of 
its belligerency. Through the efforts of Henry Ward Beecher, 
and the English Richard Cobden and John Bright, the middle 
classes opposed any declaration of Great Britain in favor of the 
Confederate slave owners. The British Government, however, 
permitted the South to fit out privateers and war vessels, among 
which was the Alabama. At the implied threat of war by Charles 
Francis Adams, Minister to the Court of St. James, the British 
maintained strict neutrality. See 455. 



American History. 163 

437. In the East, the physical conditions of the country gave 
the advantage to the South, while in the West the advantages 
lay with the Northern forces. The State of Virginia was crossed 
by many broad, shallow rivers, and with the frequent rains the 
country was almost a region of swamps, which formed an almost 
interminable barrier. The Shenandoah Valley formed a highway 
from the South to the North, but toward the south the valley 
turned west and away from Richmond. The Chesapeake Bay 
and the Atlantic Ocean, however, formed a highway for the 
Federal troops. West of the mountains the Union forces could 
pierce the heart of the Confederacy by way of the Cumberland 
and the Tennessee rivers, and the Mississippi River furnished 
the first means of cutting the Confederacy in two. Thus the 
South could be surrounded on all sides without being able to 
gain any strategic advantage over the North. 

438. The counties in western Virginia seceded from that State 
and set up the government of West Virginia; the presence of 
large numbers of Northern troops saved Maryland to the Union ; 
General Lyon, at the instance of Postmaster-General Blair, took 
steps to protect Missouri, and the Confederates were driven into 
Arkansas. 

439. Realizing the importance of the friendly services and aid 
of the European countries, the Confederacy sent James M. Mason, 
of Virginia, and John Slidell, of Louisiana, as Ministers to Eng- 
land and France, respectively. Passing through the blockade, 
they reached Havana, from which point they sailed on the Eng- 
lish steamer Trent. Captain Wilkes, commanding a Union war 
vessel, overhauled the Trent and removed Mason and Slidell. 
At once protests against this action were lodged by Great Britain 
and France, and the United States, in order to avoid any entan- 
glements, apologized and released the Confederate agents. 

440. The capture of Richmond, the blockade of the Southern 
and Gulf coast, the capture of the Mississippi River and the split- 
ting of the territory of the Confederacy. 

44L The Union forces had pushed the border of the Confed- 
eracy considerably south of the Mason and Dixon line, as a result 
of the overawing of the Border States of Maryland and Mis- 
souri. In February, 1862, Grant, supported by Commodore Foote, 



164" American History. 

successfully attacked Forts Henry and Donelson, on the Cum- 
berland and Tennessee rivers, and captured 15,000 prisoners. 
Columbus, Bowling Green, New Madrid, and Island No. 10 soon 
after were abandoned or were captured. On April 6-7, 1862, 
one of the bloodiest and most decisive battles of the war was 
fought at Pittsburg Landing or Shiloh. Corinth soon after fell, 
Memphis was abandoned, and the Mississippi was open from the 
north as far south as Vicksburg. 

442. In April, 1862, Admiral Farragut captured New Orleans, 
and with his fleet of gunboats he destroyed the forts guarding 
the city and the Confederate fleet on the river. It gave the North- 
erners control of the mouth of the Mississippi River and the 
Gulf of Mexico. 

443. The treasury was practically bankrupt and Congress 
passed the following measures : (1) The Secretary of the Treasury 
was authorized to borrow $250,000,000 on the credit of the United 
States and to issue bonds therefor. (2) The first direct tax, 
amounting to $20,000,000, was laid, in accordance with the Con- 
stitution (Article I, Section 2, Clause 3). (3) The tariflf was 
increased. (4) An income tax was levied (3 per cent, on incomes 
in excess of $800). (5) The issuance of a paper currency was 
authorized, in the form of "demand notes," which the govern- 
ment promised to redeem in gold on demand, and which it later 
did not do, as the government and the banks suspended gold 
specie payment until 1879. In order to insure the acceptance of 
these notes by creditors, Congress made these notes legal tender 
in payment of all debts, giving rise later to the famous Legal 
Tender Case. In 1862 and 1863 almost $500,000,000 worth of 
these notes were issued. 

444. With a daily expenditure of $2,000,000, the United States 
Government found it necessary to issue another $500,000,000 
worth of 6 per cent, bonds, payable in from five to twenty years. 
Further, a much higher internal revenue tax was imposed on 
occupations, a corporation tax was laid, stamp tax was enacted. 
In other words, it was a law "which taxed everything." But y^ 
the same time the duties were increased to protect the domesti - 
manufactures, which bore the heavy burden of internal revenu 
taxation. 

445. General George B. McClellan was put in command of the 



American History. 16S 

Union forces in the East, and he spent the remainder of the year 
1861 in organizing the army. He proposed to attack Richmond 
by way of the peninsula between the York and the James rivers, 
despite its great risks. The peninsula campaign that followed 
was a failure, caused the loss of a considerable number of sol- 
diers, and involved a series of bloody battles : Mechanicsville, 
Seven Pines or Fair Oaks, Malvern Hill, Yorktown. The re- 
sults might be said to be favorable to the South. 

446. The Northern fleet off the Atlantic Cape Hatteras had 
made rapid progress in seizing many important points off North 
and South Carolina. But on March 8, 1862, two of the best 
vessels in the Union navy were destroyed by the iron-clad Mer- 
rimac. During the night of March 8 the Monitor arrived. This 
was another type of iron-clad, designed by John Ericson, carry- 
ing two guns revolved by machinery in a turret. It engaged the 
enemy's boat on the 9th and drove the Merrimac to shelter. 
This battle between the iron-clads determined the superiority 
of the iron-clad over the wooden gunboat, and all the navies of 
the world had to be rebuilt. 

447. After the peninsular campaign McClellan was relieved by 
General Pope, who planned an attack on Richmond from the 
North. General Lee, however, assumed the offensive and de- 
feated the Union army again at Bull Run, and planned to invade 
the North. He was defeated in the bloody battle of Antietam, 
Maryland, by McClellan, who had been reinstated. 

The Emancipation Proclamation was issued on September 22, 
1862, as a result of the Union success at Antietam. It announced 
that on January 1, 1863, the President would declare to be free 
all slaves held within the regions at that date in arms against the 
authority of the Union. The Proclamation was only a logical 
step in freeing the slaves. General Butler had declared slaves 
"contraband of war" in May, 1861, and refused to return them, 
to their owners. Congress, in August, 1861, had passed an act 
confiscating all slaves owned by rebels. Congress passed the act 
recommended by Lincoln providing for the compensation of 
slaves that would be liberated by any State government. Con- 
gress abolished slavery within the District of Columbia and com- 
pensated slave owners. The Emancipation Proclamation of Jan- 
uary 1, 1863, applied to all the seceding States except Tennessee 



166 American History. 

and certain designated sections of Virginia and Louisiana, which 
were then under the control of the Federal troops. 

The issuance of the Proclamation secured greater and more 
unified support for the President, while abroad, particularly in 
Great Britain, it took away the props of British support for the 
Confederacy. Great Britain had abolished slavery in all her 
colonies, and the aiding of the Confederacy now meant that she 
favored slavery as an institution. 

448. The slaves on the plantations were aiding their Southern 
masters in prolonging the war by taking care of their famiUes, 
by tilling the soil and raising the crops that the Confederates 
needed, and were thus subject to the order of the President, who 
as commander-in-chief of the military forces of the United States 
could issue orders regarding their treatment, etc. 

449. The attacks on Lincoln and the progress of the Union 
army in the war were furious and bitter. Lincoln was denounced 
for his stand on the slavery question, for the weakness of the 
Northern arms, as inefficient, as being unconstitutional and 
despotic, as favoring friends. Abroad he was attacked and caric- 
atured and held up to ridicule. 

450. After the defeats of the Union armies at Fredericksburg 
and Chancellorsville, Lee assumed the offensive and again en- 
tered upon an invasion of the North. With 75,000 troops, he 
crossed the Potomac and advanced into Pennsylvania, hoping to 
reach Harrisburg and Philadelphia. At Gettysburg, on July 1, 
2 and 3, Lee was met by the Northern army under General 
Meade and after successive attacks upon the Unionists' positions 
was defeated and compelled to retreat to Virginia. 

451. In 1862, resulting in his defeat at Antietam by McClellan. 

452. On July 4th, the day following the defeat of Lee at Gettys- 
burg, Vicksburg, the last stronghold on the Mississippi River, 
surrendered to General Grant. The Mississippi River was now 
open to the Union forces along its whole length. 

453. The Battle of Gettysburg and the capture of Vicksburg 
are called the "turning point" in the Civil War, because the 
flower of the Confederate armies was defeated, and the military 
power of the Confederates waned until finally defeated. The 
backbone of the Confederacy was now broken, and the fighting 
was merely to maintain their former positions. There was no 



American HistorV, 16/ 

longer any danger of invasion of the North by the Southern 
forces. The doom of the Confederacy was marked. 

454. The present National Bank system is the result of the 
measures taken by the Treasury Department to strengthen the 
finances and credit of the government. The expenses had in- 
creased to $2,500,000 a day, while the receipts were only one- 
quarter of that sum. The deficit at the end of December, 1862, 
was almost $300,000,000. Congress, in order to meet this serious 
situation, passed the National Banking Act, which provided 
that national banking associations might purchase national bonds, 
deposit them with the United States Treasury Department, and 
receive in return ''national bank notes" to the extent of 90 per 
cent, of their market value. The advantages thus offered to the 
banking associations in the form of the regular interest on the 
bonds, and the interest on the loan of these bank notes to mer- 
chants, were sufficient to organize a number of these national 
banks. A market was thus found for the bonds. Notes and cur- 
rency of State banks were taxed 10 per cent., and thereby driven 
out of circulation. 

455. The attitude of Great Britain, and particularly England, 
caused apprehension among the officials at Washington. The 
animosity shown by the aristocracy, the moneyed and manufac- 
turing classes, and the newspapers under the control of these, 
were based on the dislike of the "crude and boastful Yankees," 
the dislike of our republican institutions and the remembrance 
that the United States were once British colonies, and last, but 
not least, the harm done to English trade and manufacture by 
the blockade of the Southern ports. 

456. The campaign against Chattanooga was launched because 
it controlled the gateway from the West, and it was an easy route 
of communication from the West. Chattanooga, because of the 
tactics of General Rosecrans, was abandoned by the Southern 
troops, and the forces joined at Chickamauga, where the stead- 
fastness of General Thomas saved the battle to the North. The 
Confederate General Bragg, occupying the heights of Lookout 
Mountain and Missionary Ridge, was soon after attacked by 
the Union army, reinforced by Generals Sherman and Hooker, 
and decisively beaten. 

457. In order that the army would not lack sufficient men to 



168 American History. 

make sure of ultimate successj Congress ordered a conscription 
or draft. All able-bodied men between the ages of 20 and 45 
were liable for military duty. If the volunteers did not make 
good the quota assigned to each State by the Federal Govern- 
.ment, the difference was to be made good by a draft, the names 
of the soldiers drafted to be taken from a box, as in a lottery. 
In New York City the draft met violent opposition, and severe 
riots took place, in which the mobs vented their anger on the 
negroes. Bounties were to be paid by the National, State, and 
county governments in order to insure the raising of the quota. 
Comparatively few troops were raised by the draft because of 
•the large voluntary enlistment of the citizens. 

458. Grant, because of his achievements in the West, was ap- 
pointed Lieutenant-General of all the Union forces, and deter- 
mined to wear down the enemy by striking hard blows and never 
letting up in the attacks. The different Northern armies were 
to attack at the same time, thereby preventing the Southern 
forces from joining. General Butler advanced on Richmond 
by the James River, General Sigel cleared the Shenandoah Val- 
ley, and Grant himself attacked Lee. The Battles of the Wilder- 
ness, Spottsylvania, Cold Harbor, and Petersburg followed in 
rapid succession, with enormous losses for the North, but Grant 
kept on, and finally laid siege to Petersburg and Richmond. 

459. General Sherman, at the same time, was to attack General 
Johnston's army, and then to destroy the Confederate base of 
supplies. Many cities were abandoned and the Battle of Kenesaw 
Mountain was fought. Sherman then marched upon Atlanta, 
captured it in September, 1864, and then began his famous "march 
to the sea," ending in the capture of Savannah, on Christmas 
Day, 1864. 

460. On April 1, 1865, General Grant decided to wait no longer 
for General Sherman, whose progress northward was delayed 
by swollen streams, and attacked the Confederates at Five Forks, 
then Petersburg. Richmond was abandoned by the Confederates. 
On April 9, General Lee surrendered at Appomattox Court 
House. On the 26th, General Johnston surrendered to General 
Sherman, and the rebellion was at an end. 

461. In order to make legal the total abolition of slavery in 
-the United States, Congress passed the Thirteenth Amendment, 



American History. 169 

which was ratified by three-fourths of the States, and declared in 
force on December 18, 1865. 

462. Amidst the joy of peace, the nation was shocked by the 
assassination of President Lincoln, who was shot while he was 
sitting in a box at Ford's Theatre, on the evening of April 14th. 
He died on the following day! 

463. The superiority of the North over the South in men, 
wealth, resources of every description, industrial, agricultural and 
maritime, counted in the final determination of the struggle. 

RECONSTRUCTION 
THE NEW REPUBLIC 

464. The results of the war may be summed up as follows : 
The destruction of the vicious institution of slavery. The over- 
throwing of the doctrines of nullification and secession. This 
nation is an indestructible nation of indestructible States. The 
piling up of debts, the principal of which the United States is 
paying for to-day. The ruin of the South. The destruction of 
American commerce, due to the Southern raiders, and particularly 
the Alabama. The loss of almost one million people from the 
killed in battle or from wounds. The rehabilitation of the South 
following the war; the South has since taken on new industries, 
has become a most important manufacturing section. 

465. "The people were greatly impoverished. The farms had 
gone to waste; the fields were covered with weeds and bushes. 
Farm implements and tools were gone ; live stock had disap- 
peared so there were barely enough farm animals to meet the 
demands of agriculture. Business was at a standstill; banks and 
commercial places had been suspended or closed on account of 
insolvency. The currency was in a wretched condition and the 
disbanded soldiers returned to their homes to find desolation and 
starvation staring them in the face." 

466. The Confederate States had rebelled against the Federal 
Government and the Constitution, and had withdrawn their rep- 
resentatives from Congress. The question now arose as to what 
was to be done with these States ; in other words, what was to 
be done to reconstruct them as States in the Union? To what 
rights were the States and their citizens entitled? That con- 
stituted the problem for the next decade. 

467. Lincoln's plan of Reconstruction: The section conquered 



170 American History. 

by the Union forces was placed under a military governor, acting 
for the President. When the number of loyal citizens who 
voted for a new government was not less than one-tenth of the 
number of the voters in 1860, the new government would go into 
effect. The only other completed "reconstruction" of the State 
was the admission of the Representatives and Senators in Con- 
gress, over which admission Congress had sole control. Ten- 
nessee, Arkansas, and Louisiana had been so reconstructed. 

468. In December, 1863, Lincoln had issued his Proclamation 
of Amnesty, granting to Southerners a "full pardon" on their 
taking an oath to support the Constitution. He excluded civil 
and military officers of the Confederate Government and Con- 
federates who had held Federal offices. In May, 1865, President 
Johnson issued a Proclamation, but he excluded a larger number, 
particularly those possessing taxable property of a value of $20,000 
or more (ex-Confederates). These could secure reinstatement 
on application to the President. During the recess of the Con- 
gress, Johnson had appointed civil governors of the former 
Southern States and elections were held to choose delegates to 
Constitutional Conventions which were to adopt Constitutions 
in accordance with the new requirements. The elections had 
been held when Congress met, and President Johnson urged Con- 
gress to admit the States' representatives. 

469. Opposition developed against the President's plans, as 
many considered that the requirements were too lenient, and that 
Congress had sole power to direct the reconstruction of the 
Union. Moreover, the Democratic Party was still in control in 
the South, while Congress was still strongly Republican. 

470. During the winter of 1865 the Southern Legislatures had 
enacted laws to curb the powers of the freed ex-slaves. These 
laws were known as the Black Codes. They required that all 
negroes should have regular occupations. Freedmen found with- 
out occupations were to be considered and treated as vagrants, 
with heavy penahles inflicted on them. The number of crimes 
was increased and the penalties were extremely heavy. All 
negroes under eighteen years of age, who were orphans or whose 
parents did not support them, could be apprenticed by court 
order to employers, preferably their former masters. 

471. These laws angered the Northerners and made them de- 



American History. 171 

termined to punish the Southerners for their temerity. One way 
was to grant the negroes the right of suffrage on an equality 
with the whites. The leaders were Thaddeus Stevens in the 
House of Representatives, and Charles Sumner in the Senate. 
The Congress passed a bill increasing the powers of the Freed- 
men's Bureau, which Johnson vetoed. 

472. During the war the greater number of slaves had re- 
mained on the farms and plantations doing the work, and pro- 
tecting the women and the young. With the issuance of the 
Emancipation Proclamation these slaves became free men, and 
large numbers flocked to the cities or to the Union armies. 
They had not learned the lesson of independence; they were 
intoxicated with their new-found freedom. The Northerners 
were compelled to provide them with food and clothing or let 
them starve. In the early part of 1865, the Freedmen's Bureau 
was organized under the War Department, with commissioners 
throughout the South, who distributed clothing, food, and fuel, 
settled them on abandoned or confiscated land, and undertook 
the establishment of schools for them. This charitable work 
made havoc with the freed slaves. 

473. Congress thereupon decided to enforce Its own policy of 
reconstruction, and in this policy they were actuated by motives 
that were humane in their attitude toward the negroes; vin- 
dictive, in their desire to punish the South; political, in order 
to maintain the supremacy of the Republican North; and per- 
sonal, in their animosity toward the President. See answers 
469, 479. 

474. The Civil Rights Bill, enacted March, 1866, declared all 
persons, not subjects of foreign countries, excluding Indians not 
taxed, to be citizens of the United States and entitled to all the 
civil and political rights of citizenship. The bill was passed over 
Johnson's veto. 

475. To make this provision doubly certain, the XIV Amend- 
ment to the Constitution was submitted to the States for adop- 
tion and ratification. It provided for citizenship of the negroes, 
for the repudiation of the Confederate debts, for the poHtical disa- 
blHties of ex-Confederates, and threatened to reduce the repre- 
sentation of any State that refused the franchise to citizens 
without regard to race, creed, or color. 



172 American History. 

476. The Reconstruction Act of 1867 provided: (1) That the 
ten unreconstructed States were to be divided into five military 
districts; (2) that miHtary officers should supervise the election 
of delegates for the Constitutional conventions, and that all 
citizens were entitled to a vote; (3) that the Constitutions should 
grant the franchise to negroes as well as to whites; (4) that the 
State Legislatures under these Constitutions were to ratify the 
Constitution with all its amendments. (5) Congress would then 
consider the admission of their Representatives and Senators. 

477. The political control of the South fell into the hands of 
certain classes of people who inflicted great harm on that sec- 
tion. They were (1) the "scalawags," or Southerners who op- 
posed secession and a few ex-Confederates who favored the 
Congressional policy; (2) the carpet-baggers, men from the 
North who saw the splendid opportunities for investment and 
acquiring wealth by buying up plantations, by favoring the 
negroes, and thus securing election to public office; (3) the 
negroes; (4) business men who had lived in the South and had 
not previously taken active part in politics, but who now saw an 
opportunity for personal advancement. In 1868, the States of 
Florida, Arkansas, North and South Carolina, Louisiana, and 
Alabama were admitted to the Union, on their acceptance of the 
conditions imposed by Congress. Virginia, Georgia, Texas, and 
Mississippi, for one reason or another, were refused recon- 
struction until 1870. 

478. In order to m^ake sure that the negroes would not be de- 
prived of the right of suffrage by the States, the XV Amendment 
to the Constitution was proposed in 1869, and adopted in March, 
1870. It forbids the denial of the right to vote on account of 
race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 

479. The breach between the Democratic President, Johnson, 
and the Republican leaders in Congress had widened. In public 
addresses, the impetuous and stubborn President characterized 
Stevens, Sumner, Wendell Phillips and other famous Republicans 
as enemies of their country. In his vetoes of the Civil Rights 
legislation he had increased their animosity. They now desired 
to trap the President in some impeachable offense, and passed 
the Tenure of Office Bill. 

480. The Tenure of Office Bill prohibited the President from 



American History. 17S 

femoving from office any appointee without the consent of the 
Senate. This right of removal had been a prerogative of the 
President from the days of Washington, and, accordingly, Presi- 
dent Johnson removed Secretary Stanton and instructed General 
Grant to perform the offices of the Secretary of War, The Senate 
refused to concur in his removal. 

481. This led to the impeachment of President Johnson by the 
House of Representatives for "high crimes and misdemeanors." 
He was tried before the United States Senate, in accordance with 
the requirements of the Constitution. The trial lasted ten weeks ; 
during the trial all the forms of law were observed most 
strictly. 

482. Only one vote was taken, that on the charge of his vio- 
lation of the Tenure of Office Act. The vote was 35 in favor 
of his removal to 19 against, one less than the two-thirds re- 
quired by the Constitution. Thus ended a dispute between two 
co-ordinate* branches of our government which brought credit 
to neither side. 

483. With the putting into effex:t of the Congressional policy 
of reconstruction the political power in the Southern States was 
placed in the hands of carpet-baggers from the North, who con- 
trolled the negro vote. Many of these Northern men were men of 
integrity, while others looked upon their political offices as mere- 
ly another means of enriching themselves. An orgy of corrup- 
tion seized the Southern States. Heavy taxes were levied, 
enormous amounts of bonds issued, offi'ces were filled by ignorant 
and vicious negroes, former Southern leaders were persecuted 
and hounded and State debts were piled up. 

484. With this state of affairs, the former Confederates banded 
together in secret organizations, among which were the White 
Brotherhood, the Loyal League, the Pale Faces, the Ku Klux 
Klan. Their deliberations were held in secret, bent upon mutual 
civil and political protection. They resorted to bloodshed where 
thought necessary. Offensive negroes were punished, carpet-bag- 
gers and office holders were ordered out of the country, property 
was burned without warning, the ignorant were warned away 
from the polls, school teachers driven out, and the country was 
in a reign of terror. 

485. In the campaign of 1872, Horace Greeley, the Republican 



174 American Historv. 

editor of the New York Tribune, was the candidate of the Liber- 
al Republicans and the Democrats. The platform called for the 
abolition of the spoils system, the immediate removal of all dis- 
abilities imposed on account of the Rebellion. Grant was re- 
elected by an overwhelming vote. 

486. Alaska was ceded to the United States in 1867 for the 
sum of $7,200,000. Russia desired again to show her friendly 
spirit, which she had evidenced during the Civil War, and to 
check the expansion of England. 

487. During the Civil War, there existed a similar state of 
affairs in Mexico. For the protection of their citizens and the 
payment of the debts due them, England, France and Spain 
reached an agreement to send an armed force to that country. 
Soon after, France was left alone to pursue the policy, and 
Napoleon III caused Archduke Maximilian of Austria to be 
raised to the throne of Mexico. The United States protested 
against this step, but the protests were ignored. At the close of 
the war, troops were ordered to the Mexican border to prepare 
to invade that country, if necessary. The French withdrew in 
1867, and Maximilian was left to his fate. He was captured and 
executed by troops of the Mexican Republic. The Monroe 
Doctrine as an avowed American policy was again enunciated. 

488. During the Civil War the North protested against the 
fitting out, in English harbors, of vessels for the South to prey 
on the commerce of the North. Hundreds of American vessels 
had either been destroyed or seized, and American carrying trade 
was given a blow from which i*- has not yet recovered. The 
threatened war between France and Prussia, in which England 
might become involved, led England to consent to settle the 
claims of the Americans for damages by arbitration. As a re- 
sult of the decision of the five arbitrators selected by the United 
States, Great Britain, Switzerland, Italy, Brazil, the United 
States was awarded the sum of $15,500,000. 

489. In addition, the northwestern boundary between the United 
States and Canada was decided by the German Emperor, the 
fisheries dispute was amicably settled, and the claims of the 
citizens of both nations were settled. 

490. The Homestead Law of 1862 granted to a settler 160 



American History. 17S 

acres per family provided he lived on it for five years. This 
encouraged German and Irish immigration to the West. 

491. The merchant marine never recovered from the blow 
dealt it by the Confederate privateers. In 1860, more than two- 
thirds of all the imports and exports were carried in ships under 
the American registry laws ; in 1870, only half as much was 
carried, and since then it has been dwindling, until today, no 
more than 10 per cent, of the total amount of foreign commerce 
is carried in American bottoms. Iron and steel had superseded 
the wood in marine construction, and with the laws in force it 
was found impossible to have the ships built in America in com- 
petition with foreign-built ships. 

492. The public debt at the end of 1865 was almost $3,000,000,- 
000; the interest on this alone amounted to almost $200,000,000. 
The debt was represented by certificates, notes and bonds, issued 
during the term of the war at interest rates of from 6 to 7.5 per 
cent, on the original issues. It was necessary to reduce this 
amount of interest, and under Secretary of the Treasury Mc- 
Culloch, the demand and short-term obligations were taken up 
and new interest-bearing bonds were given in exchange with 
lower rates of interest. It was not long before the credit of the 
Federal government was so good as to be able to issue bonds at 
a rate of not more than 2^/^ per cent. 

493. The retirement of the legal tender notes soon demanded 
the attention of the Treasury officials. There was a large 
amount of these notes and prices were consequently high. In 
1866, the Secretary of the Treasury was authorized to redeem 
the legal tenders in limited amounts from revenues, and to 
cancel those redeemed. In 1868 this redemption was stopped by 
act of Congress, when the amount had been reduced to about 
$360,000,000. 

494. The country was divided as to the question of the legal 
tenders, when the Supreme Court, Chief Justice Chase presiding, 
decided (1869) that Congress had exceeded its authority in mak- 
ing the notes legal tender, and that contracts entered into prior 
to the date of the issuance of the legal tender were to be paid 
in the legal tender before that time of issue, that is, in gold. In 
1872, however, the Court, having been changed by the addition 



176 American History, 

of two new members, reversed itself, and sustained the consti-; 
tutionality of the legal tender notes. 

495. The year 1873 saw a most serious panic which continued 
for a period of more than five years. The prosperity of the 
post-Civil War period, the consequent speculations, the litiga- 
tion in connection with legal tender notes, the inflation of values, 
tended to create a stringency in the money market in New 
York, which was followed by the demands of the depositors in 
the banks, and the inability of the banks to meet these de- 
mands. 

496. President Grant refused to sanction the issuance of ad- 
ditional greenbacks or legal tender to meet the money stringency, 
and Congress, in 1875, decided to allow the resumption of specie 
payments, fixing January 1, 1879, as the date for redemption of 
legal tender. The sum of $100,000,000 was set aside for that 
purpose, but the credit of the United States had been restored 
and few bills were offered for redemption. 

497. The other important events during Grant's administration 
were: The demand for a reform of the Civil Service; 
the prosecution of the Credit Mobilier, a corporation en- 
gaged in building the Pacific Railroads, which sought to influence 
Congressmen by offering them stock at less than the market 
prices ; the prosecutions of the Secretary of War Belknap for 
participation in the contracts for supplies in his department; and 
the prosecution of the "whiskey frauds." 

498. (a) The Campaign of 1876 is marked by the bitterness 
between the Democrats whose candidates were Samuel J. Tilden, 
of New York, and Thomas A. Hendricks, and the Republicans 
with Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, and William H. Wheeler, of 
New York, (b) The returns from three of the Southern States 
and from Oregon were disputed, and could not be counted be- 
cause of the lack of agreement between the Democratic House 
of Representatives and the Republican Senate. Tilden had 184 
undisputed votes and needed only one more vote to become 
President, while Hayes required all the disputed votes. In order 
to break the deadlock, Congress appointed an Electoral Commis- 
sion consisting of five Senators (three Republican and two 
Democratic), and five Representatives (three Democrats and two 
Republicans) and five Justices of the Supreme Court (two. of 



American History. 177 

each party, and the fifth to be chosen by the other four, who was 
Justice Bradeley, a RepubHcan), (c) The vote was a strict party 
vote, eight to seven in favor of the RepubHcan returns, thereby 
electing Hayes as President. 

499. With the period after the Civil War we have the begin- 
ning of the age of steel. The Bessemer process of converting 
iron into steel, was first used extensively in 1867, and the open- 
hearth method was used in 1869. Cities sprang up in the steel 
manufacturing region, machinery was. put into greater use, hand 
labor was displaced by machinery, steel tracks displaced the 
iron rails, and the demand for steel wares of all kinds was un- 
precedented. 

500. With this period we also have the concentration of capital 
and labor manufactures into the great corporations, which have 
done so much to develop the country. Small factories were 
bought up, and consolidated into large corporations, the earn- 
ings and profits of which were turned into the exploitation of 
newer fields. This brought about the greater distinction between 
capital and labor, and gave rise to the organization of the 
unions. 

501. Some of the evils resulting from the development of cor- 
porations were: The destruction of the small manufacturing 
concerns ernploying large numbers of people; the destruction of 
competition, and the consequent increase in the prices of com- 
modities ; the concentration of people in large manufacturing 
cities ; the questionable practices indulged in by the "financiers" 
and speculators in order to acquire stock of corporations ; manip- 
ulations of the stocks and books of the corporations. Some of 
the good features were : The building of large cities ; the devel- 
opment of the industry, for large corporations could employ the 
highest-priced employees to make special studies of the industry 
(Standard Oil Corporation chemists, for example) ; the great 
development of our export trade. 

502. The growth of labor unions, as an offset to the growth of 
the corporations, is due to one or more of the many aims of 
these unions. They are: The fostering of co-operation among 
workers ; the shortening of the number of hours of labor in a 
day ; the increasing of wages ; the distribution of sick and death 
benefits; self-protection against the workings of the corpora- 



178 American History. 

tions; the securing of legislation that would give protection to 
the laborer, accident insurance, clean shops, etc. 

503. With the growth and development of the country, there 
developed the great railroad systems. The Federal and the State 
Legislatures aided this development by grants of land, financial 
aid, special legislation, etc. But at the same time there arose 
a great number of evils which it has taken time to eradicate. 
Among them were : Where there were competing lines, compe- 
tition was keen, and freight rates were correspondingly low; 
but where only one railroad line dominated a section of the 
country, the rates were excessively high. Intermediate points 
had higher tariffs than terminal points. Through various means, 
the railroads secured favorable legislation, and in the end, in 
many of the States, the railroads controlled the legislatures, and 
only legislation favorable to them was enacted. 

504. Through the co-operation of farmers' "granges," and busi- 
ness men in their societies, etc., there were established Railroad 
Commissions (Illinois, Wisconsin, Iowa, Minnesota), which had 
authority to fix maximum rates within the States, to regulate the 
work of the railroads, and to nullify restrictive rules made by the 
companies. The enactment of the laws establishing these com- 
missions was sustained after considerable litigation by the Su- 
preme Court, in- 1877. 

505. The Interstate Commerce Commission was organized in 
1887, following a decision of the Supreme Court on the meaning 
of interstate commerce, and the consolidation of many rail- 
roads into extensive lines. The Commission consisted of five 
persons with full power to investigate and to report concern- 
ing grievances against the railroads, tariffs, their rules, etc., and 
to correct abuses. The law required charges and rates to be 
reasonable and just; unjust discrimination between persons and 
places was prohibited; pooling was declared illegal; competing 
parallel lines were not to be joined or consolidated. 

506. Along the Pacific Coast there arose a demand, because 
of the extensive immigration of the Chinese, for the exclusion of 
the Mongols. This intense hatred was due to their modes of 
life, to the low wages, and their habit of returning to China 
with their savings. In 1882, in obedience to the popular demand, 



American History. 179 

Congress passed the Exclusion Law, excluding Chinese labor for 
a period of ten years. The law has since been re-enacted. 

507. The Greenback Party, formed in 1876, with Peter Cooper 
for its Presidential candidate, demanded the issue of a greater 
amount of the notes of "fiat money." They denounced the re- 
sumption of specie payment, national banks, and the payment of 
bonds in specie. In 1876, they polled but 80,000 votes, while two 
years later, they polled 1,000,000 votes. 

508. During the two decades preceding the year 1873, the pro- 
duction of gold vyas greatly in excess of the silver production, 
and very little silver was brought to the mint for coinage. Little 
attention was given to the omission of the silver dollar from the 
list of coins in the law of 1873. But shortly after, the famous 
silver mines in Colorado were discovered, and the production 
of silver increased. There then arose from the West a demand 
for the free coinage of silver, on a par with gold ; that is, any 
person could bring the silver bullion to the mints and get in 
exchange for it, silver dollars. The adherents of the Green- 
back Party favored this as it would then mean the expansion of 
money. The demand was so strong that in 1876 and 1877, the 
House of Representatives passed bills for the free coinage of 
silver. 

509. The Bland-Allison act of 1878 was a compromise measure 
which authorized the Secretary of the Treasury to purchase 
monthly, from $2,000,000 to $4,000,000 worth of silver bullion 
and coin it in silver dollars of the standard weight which were to 
be full legal tender. Under this, almost $400,000,000 were coined, 
but silver did not reach a parity with gold. 

510. The election of 1880 resulted in the choice of James A. 
Garfield for the Presidency and Chester A. Arthur for Vice- 
President, both Republicans. President Garfield was shot by a 
disappointed office-seeker, in the railroad station at Washington, 
on July 9, 1881. His death followed on September 19, 1881. 
Vice-President Arthur succeeded him as President. 

511. The campaign of 1884 is marked by the nomination of 
James G. Blaine on the Republican ticket, the bolt of the "Mug- 
wumps" who opposed the choice of Blaine, and the loss of New 
York State by less than 1,000 votes. The tariff became an im- 
portant issue, The first Democratic President since 1856 was 



180 American History. 

elected in the* person of Grover Cleveland, of New York, a man 
who had shown his fearlessness and independence and his deter- 
mination to destroy, wherever and whenever he could, the evil 
powers of corruption in government. 

512. The tariff became an important matter in 1884, since the 
need for the excessive taxes imposed by, or as a condition of 
war, had passed. The manufacturing industries urged the con- 
tinuance of the high tariff, while the agricultural sections de- 
manded a considerably reduced tariff, since the surplus in the 
Treasury was of enormous size. A commission of nine, after 
consideration, recommended a reduction of from twenty to 
twenty-five per cent, in the duties. The report was rejected, and 
a tariff with strong protection features was passed. President 
Cleveland, an ardent tariff reformer, urged the reduction in 
tariff, but the division in Congress prevented him from being 
successful. 

513. The industrial tendency of the age is the combination 
of factories into large corporations, consolidation instead of 
competition, the introduction of machinery in all processes, the 
greater division of labor, and the greater utilization of by- 
products. Consolidation and combination were effected by pur- 
chase of rival factories, by underselling and destroying rivals by 
for.cing them into bankruptcy, by agreement to maintain prices, 
by pooling arrangements, and by ability to borrow enormous 
capital. 

514. A "trust" was a combination of various corporations, in 
which the powers of each corporation were surrendered to a 
number of persons acting aS "trustees," these managing the 
entire business of the combined corporations. This was declared 
illegal by the Supreme Court and the present "trust" includes 
all the stockholders of the former separate plants. The first 
large trust was the Standard Oil Company; another was the 
American Sugar Company. The trusts through their immense 
capital, the united strength, were able to destroy competition, 
and raise the selling price of their commodities. This resulted 
in the enactment of anti-trust laws in many of the States, and 
finally, in 1890, the famous Sherman Anti-Trust Law (written by 
Senator Edmunds) was passed. This Act prohibited agreements 



American History. 181 

in restraint of trade, in pooling arrangements in articles and 
commodities in interstate or foreign commerce. 

515. While the manufacturing industries were enjoying pros- 
perity, the condition of the farmers was anything but right. The 
prices of farm products were reduced, the farms were being 
heavily mortgaged, the inequality of taxation between the owners 
of stocks and other forms of personal property and the owners 
of the land, and burdens imposed upon the farmers by the rail- 
roads, the speculation in farm products, and the general unsatis- 
factory conditions of life on the farm, led to a rebelHous attitude 
of the farmers, and resulted in the organization of the Farmer's 
Alliance, with a membership of several millions, and controlling 
more than a thousand newspapers. The work of this alliance 
organization has brought about changes in the condition of the 
farmers. Laws were enacted to remedy the abuses complained 
of, to better the living conditions, and in many other ways the 
farmers have prospered. 

516. In the campaign of 1892, the People's Party, or the 
Populist Party, became an important factor. In the subsequent 
campaigns, of 1896 and 1900, its members became the controlling 
factors in the Democratic Party, and have influenced its policies 
since. The Republican and the Democratic candidates were re- 
spectively Benjamin Harrison and Grover Cleveland, former 
Presidents. The important monetary question was settled by a 
decision to favor bimetallism, and the fight hinged on the tariff. 
The Populist platform demanded the enactment of laws relieving 
the farmers, the free coinage of silver, the government owner- 
ship of the public utilities, a revenue tariff, and a number of 
other reforms that have since, in whole or in part, been enacted 
into law. 

517. The Sherman Act of 1890, passed in response to the de- 
mands of the owners of the silver mines, provided for the 
monthly purchase of four and a half million ounces of silver at 
the market price. Silver certificates were to be issued against 
the bullion. The price of silver rose because the visible quantity 
of the silver was reduced considerably by the purchases. 

518. Owing to the unfavorable balances against the United 
States, the gold withdrawn to pay the balances due the Euro- 
pean countries reduced the gold reserve. The bankers and mer- 



182 American History. 

chants therefore asked the United States to redeem the United 
States notes as a means of obtaining sufficient gold. This led to 
a restriction of loans by banking institutions, the curtailment of 
purchases, and the consequent depression of 1893, or the panic 
of 1893. President Cleveland called Congress in special session, 
and the Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890 was repealed 
after a severe struggle. Bonds to the amount of almost $300,- 
000,000 were issued to meet deficits. 

519. The campaign of 1896 was waged on the monetary or 
financial question, "the free and unlimited coinage of both gold 
and silver at the present legal ratio of sixteen to one, without 
waiting for the consent or aid of any other nation." The candi- 
dates were: Republican, William McKinley and Garret A. Ho- 
bart; Democratic, William Jennings Bryan and Arthur Sewall; 
Populists, Bryan and Thomas Watson ; the Gold Democrats, 
John M. Palmer and Simon B. Buckner. The campaign was 
most bitterly fought, the popular vote being in favor of the Re- 
publican candidates, 7,100,000 to 6,200,000, and the electoral vote 
was decidedly Republican. 

520. The influx of foreigners, particularly Americans, into 
Hawaii led to a revolt against the absolute monarchy of the 
Hawaiians. The provisional form of government was recognized 
by President Harrison, and a treaty of annexation was drawn 
up and submitted to the Senate. President Cleveland, however, 
decided to investigate the entire question and sent a commissioner 
to the islands for that purpose. The President, on receipt of 
the report, refused to sanction annexation. However, a re- 
public was organized, with the constitutional provision for 
future annexation to the United States. The failure to secure 
the necessary two-third vote in the Senate to ratify the treaty 
of annexation led to the annexation by joint resolution (July, 
1898). Hawaii was made a territory of the United States. 

521. The application of the Monroe Doctrine to the dispute 
between Great Britain and Venezuela, once more showed the 
world at large that this country considered the Doctrine as one 
of its fundamental laws. The question of boundary line between 
Venezuela and British Guiana was in dispute, and the United 
States demanded that the question be settled by arbitration, to 
which Great Britain refused to give assent. After numerous 



American Historv. 183 

messages, and implied threat on the part of the President to 
call to his support in the upholding of the Doctrine, the military 
and naval forces of the United States, Great Britain consented, 
and the dispute was decided by arbitration. 

522. Following 1880, the United States Patent Office issued 
more than 20,000 patents daily. These were for many labor- 
saving devices, and the new processes and products greatly 
increased the conveniences of life. Among them were : Steam- 
heating systems, canning and packing, sanitary plumbing, manu- 
facture of artificial ice, processes of refrigeration, the roller-proc- 
ess of milling, milk-test, etc. The typewriter, the sulky-plough, 
the Hoe web-printing press, the linotype, self-binding reaper, 
compressed-air rock drill, the Westinghouse air-brake, vesti- 
buled trains, Pullman cars, trolley car systems, smokeless pow- 
der, magazine rifles, bicycle, automatic gun, the telephone, the 
improved dynamo, the arc and incandescent lamps, storage bat- 
teries, were among the important articles for which patents were 
issued. 

523. The continued mismanagement of the Spanish colony of 
Cuba led to the revolt of the Cubans. The Cubans received aid 
from the Americans in their attempts, received supplies and 
food for the starving thousands whom the Spanish neglected. 
In 1895, a rebellion broke out, and despite the attempts of Spain, 
it could not be put down. The Cubans had gained the sympathy 
of the Americans, because of the cruelties of the Spanish. On 
February 15, 1898, the Maine, an American battleship, while in 
the harbor of Havana, was destroyed by an external explosion, 
causing the death of two officers and 264 men sailors. President 
McKinley tried to bring about a peaceful settlement between 
the Spaniards and the Cubans, but failed in the attempt, and 
asked Congress to grant him power to bring about the cessa- 
tion of the disgraceful conditions in Cuba. Congress, on April 
19, demanded the withdrawal of Spain from the Island, and 
empowered the President to use the forces of the United States 
to bring this about. A formal declaration of war followed. 

524. The events worthy of notice were : The capture of the 
Philippines by Admiral Dewey; the blockade of the Cuban ports; 
the destruction of the Spanish fleet in the harbor of Santiago; 
the small battles of San Juan and the capture of Santiago; the 



184 AMERicAisr History. 

capture of Porto Rico. The treaty of peace, signed at Paris, 
within one year after the outbreak of the war, provided for the 
complete independence of Cuba, for the possession of the Philip- 
pines and the other Spanish Islands in the Western hemisphere, 
and the payment of $20,000,000 by the United States to Spain. 

525. The United States feels itself responsible for the freedom 
of Cuba, and therefore, has insisted that the Cubans govern 
themselves in an orderly way, without injuring the citizens of 
other nations. Factional quarrels are frowned upon, and the 
United States, under its treaty obligations, will not hesitate to 
step in and compel peace in the island. 

526. In 1899, a treaty was effected among Germany, Great 
Britain and the United States, by which the United States ac- 
quired four islands of the Samoan group, the largest being the 
Island Tutuila, with the largest and best harbor, Pago Pago, in 
the Pacific. This, too, followed as a result of native revolts 
against the rulers, and the failure of an arrangement among the 
above nations to compel peace on the islands. 

527. Shortly after peace was signed, the Filipinos revolted, 
but were subdued. The American occupancy has been very bene- 
ficial to the island. Their industries have been developed ; peace- 
ful conditions reign on the islands; schools, churches, and other 
institutions have been established. It is very likely that an 
attempt to grant the islands their independence will succeed 
within a short time. 

528. (a) In 1900, President McKinley, renominated on the 
Republican ticket, against William Jennings Bryan on the Dem- 
ocratic ticket, won a most decisive victory at the polls against 
his opponents. This was due, in large measure, to the influx 
of gold from the Klondike region, to the great prosperity of the 
country, and to the popularity of the President, partly as a 
result of the successful termination of our small war with 
Spain, (b) President McKinley, six months after his second 
inauguration, was shot while delivering a speech at the Pan- 
American Exposition, at Buffalo, and the Vice-President, Theo- 
dore Roosevelt, succeeded to the Presidency. 

529. President Roosevelt, by his aggressive individuality, and 
the firm stand he had taken in his antagonism against the "male- 
factors of wealth," his vigorous foreign policy, his efforts in the 



American History. 185 

direction of official purity, and his striking American personality, 
was re-elected in 1904; and his election ushered in a vigorous 
participation of the United States in world pohtics, particularly 
in the politics of the Far East, where we own the important 
Philippines. In the Peace Conferences at the Hague and other 
places, the United States has taken a prominent part^ 

530. The Monroe Doctrine was again enunciated as a clear 
American doctrine of policy. The smaller South American 
and Central American States were warned that the United 
States would not countenance the use of the Monroe Doctrine 
as a shield by these states in their evasion from payment of 
just and legal debts to foreign nations or their citizens, and that 
the United States would act in good faith to see that the just 
obligations of the smaller states would be met. 

531. The administration of President Roosevelt is noted for 
the abrogation of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (1901), the pur- 
chase of the franchise and concession from the French Panama 
Company, the recognition of the revolting country of Panama 
from Colombia, the payment of a large sum of money to Panama 
for the concession, and the beginning of the building of the 
Panama Canal. The country has guaranteed the neutral use of 
the canal in time of war, and it has since been fortified in order 
to prevent foreign nations from taking advantage of the canal to 
attack the coasts of this country. 

532. Civil government is now ruling in the Philippines, and 
the natives have been allowed a certain amount of self-govern- 
ment. The material and educational welfare of the people has 
been improved. The tendency is to allow them an increased 
amount of home rule, if not to give them their freedom. 

533. Oklahoma and Indian Territories, as the State of Okla- 
home, 1907; Arizona, 1912; New Mexico, 1912, making the num- 
ber of States in the Union, 48. 

534. Lewis & Clark Exposition, 1905; Jamestown, 1907; Alaska- 
Yukon-Pacific Exposition, 1909. Exhibits of various kinds are 
shown and the world can see the progress made in all lines of 
commerce and industries. 

535. The wealth and prosperity of this country has been based 
on the vast natural resources, agricultural, animal, mineral, its 
rich acres, the great forests, herds of cattle, hogs, flocks of sheep, 



186 American History. 

etc., the enormous amount of water power, stores of oil, gas, and 
coal, have been used, in numerous cases, without regard for the 
future supply. The demand for these resources is increasing 
annually. In order to conserve the supply for the future, the 
State and National governments have passed laws to preserve 
these resources from destruction. 

536. The election of William H. Taft, Republican, as President 
against William Jennings Bryan, Democrat. 

537. The split in the Republican Party and the consequent or- 
ganization of the Progressive Party with former President Roose- 
velt as its leader and nominee, and the union of the Democratic 
forces gave their candidate, Woodrow Wilson, a sweeping ma- 
jority of the States and their electoral votes. The Republican 
candidate. President Taft, received a small number of votes. 

538. The reduction of the tariff; the preservation of peace in 
the (civil) war-ridden Mexico ; the maintenance of neutrality in 
the present European War; the support and upbuilding of the 
mercantile marine ; the government of the Philippines ; the main- 
tenance of peace among our neighbors in the Western Hemis- 
phere; the preparedness of the United States, industrially, com- 
mercially and for wart 



THE 



Progressive Series 



REGENTS 



Question and Answer Books 

'are now ready; others are in preparation 



Algebra, Elementary 

Algebra* Advanced 
''^Arithmetu: 

Arithmetic, Advanced 

Arithmetic Commercial 

Biology 

Bookkeeping, Elementanf 

Bookkeeping, Advanced 

Botany 

Chemistry 
«Civics 

Drawing and Representation 

English, Commercial 

English Composition 
^Enghsh Grammar 

English, First Year 

Elnglish, Fourth Year 

English Literature 

English, Second Year 

English, Third Year 

French Language and Literature 
(by years) 

French Selections 

German Language and Literature 
(by years) 



German Selections 

Geography, Physical 

Geography, United States 

Geography, World 

Geometry 
*History, American 

History, American, Advanced 
*Htstory, Ancient ^ 

History of Education 

History, French 

History, Greek 
*Hi8tory, Medieval 
*Hirtory, Modem 

History of Literature 

History, Roman 

Latin Language and Literature 

Methods, Elementary School 

Methods, Secondary School 

Physics 
*Phy$iology 

Rhetoric and Composition 

Spanish Language and Literature 
^Spelling and Dictation 
"^Stenography Dictation 

Zoology 



QUESTIONS: 30 CENTS ANSWERS: 30 CENTS 

Questions and Answers Bound in One Volume: 45 CenU 



HINDS, HAYDEN & ELDREDGE, Inc. 

11 UNION SQUARE WEST NEW YORK CITY 




















^o. ':i 



4^^ 









I". "*^6* 


















V* .'li^'-. «i, 



A 



^0* 



* «^ > 







jS-^ ^^ 



















-\/\--^ 

/V"-^-"" 








°o 













♦• -x^'-V. '. 





■'?'^^. 




















^ > 



HECKMAN 
BINDERY INC. |§ 



^ DEC 88 

^H^^ N. MANCHESTER, 
^^"^^ INDIANA 46962 



0-' <^ "^^t^^^* ^ ^ 



A 



A' 



*Sy A. ^ 



